Leonardo Fibbonacis Famous Formulas :: essays research papers

Some pile hate math and some love it. Other people devote their time to finding math patterns because they do not have a life. Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci, or Leonardo of Pisa, was one of those people. He was the greatest European mathematician of the middle ages. Fibonacci was born 1175 AD in Pisa, Italy. His father was named Guilielmo, a member of the Bonacci Family and his mother Alessandra died when he was only nine years old. Fibonacci grew up with a northwestern African Education because his father worked a trading post in that location. While there helping his father, he learned the Hindu-Arabic numeral system. Fibonacci traveled the Mediterranean world to study about Arab mathematicians of the time. Leonardo returned from his travels around 1200. In 1202, at age 32, he published what he had learned and introduced Hindu-Arabic numerals to Europe. His book was called Liber abaci. The book explained counting with the digits 0?9 and place value. It also showed the importance of the new numeral system. The book educated Europe and had an impact on European thought. However, the use of decimal numerals did not become widespread until much later. Liber Abaci also solved a problem involving the growth of a supposed population of rabbits. The solution was a serial publication of numbers known as Fibonacci numbers. The number sequence was known to Indian mathematicians as early as the 6th century, but Fibonaccis Liber Abaci introduced it to the West.The Fibonacci numbers are a sequence of numbers that begin with 0, 1 ... and then calculated each number from the sum of the previous two. The equation for this method is . Another theory he studied was a sequence that has a flower like pattern. Fibonaccis second work was the Practica geometriae and was composed in 1220-1221. The Practica geometriae draws heavily on the works of the ancient Grecian masters i.e. Plato. Fibonacci made a dent in mathematics history.

Much Ado About Nothing: An Overview :: essays research papers

Much Ado About Nothing An Overview     It is a beautiful spring afternoon. The air is proficient of the radiance offreshly bloomed daisies and the energizing chill of the periodic spring breeze.Puffy large cumulus clouds fill the azure sky with gray thunderheads looming offin the distance. Looking down from the clouds, one can see a gathering of o.k.ly dressed people. Birds flying overhead hear the murmurs of the crowdgathered for a wedding of gentry.     Shakespeare could never have planned the first scene of Act IV in MuchAdo About Nothing so well. The undisturbed sky overhead symbolizing the beauty andjoviality of the occasion dark rain clouds looming in the distanceforeshadowing the mischief to come. Despite his inability to promise weatherpatterns, Shakespeare developed marvelous scenes which he displayed in his owntheater, The Globe. How did Shakespeare portray the emotional aspects of hischaracters and their strife to his audience? H ow did he direct the actors andwhat did the open air full stop of The Globe look like?     Imagine yourself in London circa 1600, a short year after the completionof the Globe Theater and perhaps a few months after the completion of the playMuch Ado About Nothing, Act IV has just begun. Claudio and Hero are facing each new(prenominal) in front of a simple, yet anciently beautiful altar, garbed in Elizabethancostume fit for the occasion. Hero is wearing a abundant white dress with trailerand high neck which is adorned according to the fashion trends of the time.Claudio has donned a royal looking doublet with silver trim and hose to evenlyas majestic. Sitting on either side of the couple in ancient pews, shrouded insolemn silence, are arrogate Pedro the Prince of Aragon, Don John the Bastard,Leonato, Benedick, Beatrice and the attendants of Beatrice and Hero. facing thecouple, positioned in between them so the audience may hear him, is FriarFrancis wearing a s imple white robe and golden cross, his only posessions. DonPedro wears a doublet ornately embroidered with golden designs. He is the onlyperson on stage looking finer than Claudio, marking his royal blood to all. Theothers wear fine doublets and dresses, although not decorated elaborately, toshow their respect for the wedding pair.     Scene IV actually begins when Leonato stands and makes his brave butrespectful request to the Friar to be drawing with the ceremonies (IV i,l1).Knowing his duties, the Friar continues square-faced with the wedding by askingClaudio of his intentions to embrace Hero (IV i,l5). Without hesitation Claudioresponds, "No." (IV i,l6) He means that he does not intend to marry Hero.

Finding Happiness in Great Expectations :: Great Expectations Essays

Finding Happiness in Great Expectations Great Expectations is a coming of come on novel. This novel is a story of Pip and his initial dreams and resulting disappointments that eventually lead him to becoming a genuinely good man. During his journey into adulthood, Pip comes to realize devil diverse concepts of being a gentleman and he comes to find the real gentlemen in his life arent the people he had thought. Encouraged by Mrs. Joe and Pumblechook, as a child Pip entertains fantasies of becoming a gentleman. In the eyes of Pip a gentleman is to be wealthy, educated and have a high class, thus Pips desires. In his mind, Pip has connected the ideas of moral, social, and educational advancement so that each depends on the others. The coarse and cruel Drummle, a member of the upper class, provides Pip with certainty that social advancement has no inherent connection to intelligence or moral worth. Drummle is a lout who has inherited immense wealth, while Pips friend and brother-in-law Joe is a good man who works hard for the little he earns. Significantly Pips life as a gentleman is no more satisfying--and certainly no more moral--than his previous life as a blacksmiths apprentice. Pips desires for educational improvement have deep connections to his social ambition and longing to marry Estella a full-of-the-moon education is a requirement of being a gentleman so he thinks. As long as he is an ignorant country boy, he has no hope of social advancement. Pip understands this fact as a child, when he learns to read at Mr. Wopsles aunts school, and as a young man, when he takes littleons from Matthew Pocket. Ultimately, through with(predicate) the examples of Joe, Biddy, and Magwitch, Pip learns that social and educational improvement are irrelevant to ones real worth and that conscience and affection are to be valued above mundanity and social standing. This new understanding shows Pip who the real gentlemen are. As Pip grows in age he grows in wisdom and his true identity unfolds as he discovers what it means to be a gentleman. When Pip was young, he knew only of the stereotypical figures of a gentleman. However, Pip comes to the realization that wealth and class are less important than affection, loyalty, and inner worth.

Angels and Demons by Dan Brown Essay -- Angels and Demons Dan Brown Es

Angels and Demons by Dan BrownTitle of the book Angels and DemonsAuthor Dan BrownYear original book was published 2000Four words to discover the author Cosmopolitan, Witty, Articulate, SophisticatedCharacters in the book The Hassassin Strong, MercilessCommander Olivetti Disciplined, StubbornThe Camerlengo/Janus Deceitful, PowerfulCardinal Mortati Fortunate, PatientRobert Langdon Clever, CautiousLeonardo Vetra Humanitarian, LovingVictoria Vetra Gorgeous, redoubtedMaximilian Kohler Cold, RuthlessSetting of the book This novel takes settle during present times, but has several historical facts dating back several hundred years. The setting takes place from Harvard University in Massachusettes to Rome, Italy where Vatican urban center is located. The story takes place from underground tunnel systems and secret society dungeons and lairs, to the inside of famous architectual feats such as the Vatican Archives.Was the setting very heavy or not so important to the events of the story? Yes, the setting was absolutely crucial for this novels plot and storyline. With the entire story devoted to the Catholicism and its root of power, Vatican City had to be the setting for this exciting novel. Without Vatican City and Rome in our story, the most critical details would have been forgotten. Without factual settings and places to help build and construct the excite and action packed scenes, the reader would have difficulty following along with this fast pace trek.What is the main conflict in the book? There were ternary major conflicts in this novel, on the whole of equal importance to the stories plot. With the Anti-Matter device threatening to blow up Vatican City and half of Rome, the Illuminati Hassassin kidnapping cardinals, leaving them for dead on the eve of conclave, and trying to keep everything from the public gives this book mulitiple conflicts.How was this conflict resolved? The conflict is resolved when Robert and Victoria are no longer adequate to(p) to lay aside anymore Cardinals lives, but follow the suspected Hassassin. When they reach him, Victoria is captured and Commander Olivetti is murdered. When Robert follows the Hassassin and frees Victoria, killing the Hassassin in the process, they return to Vatican City and the Camerlengo. With the Camerlengos help, they are are able to locate the Anti-Matter device and... ...d eye, has now gone missing.Vittoria and Robert travel to the Vatican in an attempt to help find the canister (before itexplodes) and bring altogether things dark into the illumination, so-to-speak. They get to The Vatican honorable in the nick of time- it is about to be closed since the papal election is about to start- but they do get in. The horror of it is-should the anti-matter canister explode, the entire pep pill echelon of the Catholic church would be wiped out in an instant. Browns conjecture here is that so would a lot of the wealth of the Catholic Church, because all those rumored treasures of t he Vatican would be vaporized in the fireball. And then, with the deaths of a lot of Catholic Church leaders gathered in Europe, and the erasure of a lot of the Catholic Churchs money, it would he only a matter of hours before the church would all fall apart like a big house of cards, and then, presumably, would all the Protestant and Independent churches all come tumbling down, and Christianity would Be No More. Meanwhile, back at the Rancho-de-Vaticano, helped by the Swiss Guard, Robert and Vittoria do their best to solve the riddles and duty the wrongsbefore it is too late.

Death of Salesman by Arthur Miller Essay -- Death Salesman Arthur Mill

Death of Salesman by Arthur MillerThe elegy controlms to simply conclude the play at the funeral and letus see the other characters view of events with some retrospect.However, with closer scrutiny, we see that old issues and resentmentsare still very prevalent.The elegy can be split into two halves. The inaugural half sees Charley, bullet, Linda and Happy over Willys grave. Each character is unique intheir perspective at this point, reflecting Willys own change ofperspective towards the end of play and reminding us of several themesin the text.Happy still clings to the memory of Willy Loman as the successfulsalesman and general good man. Indeed, he holds this view with someferocity. He tries to stop Biff being negative about his father (thestage directions include almost ready to fight Biff infuriated) andhis last words are ones of defianceIm gonna show you and everybody else that Willy Loman did non die invein this is where Im gonna win it for himThis seems rather absurd to th e reader as it is clear now that theAmerican Dream for the Loman family is just that- a dream. The undischarged failure of his father and the collapse of the family showthat the dogmatic pursuit of success is fruitless and even dangerous.Happy is a very apt name for the son who tries to be happy and showa brave face even when things have collapsed around him. Otherexamples of this include Happy rallying Biff both when they lambast aboutsetting up business together and when Happy tries to make Biff attractwomen at the restaurant in Scene 2. Happy too represents the side ofWilly that he was most used to (Happy, unlike Biff, lived with Willyday to day and so was more indoctrinated to the lies and... ...wife. Instead of seeing the inevitable, as Charley does, orbeing someway released like Biff, she can only see things in terms ofmoney and time, like Willy used to obsess over- He even finished withthe dentist.The second half of the Requiem is dedicated to Linda. It is quite hardto un derstand. She says that she cant cry but then seconds latershe is sobbing more fully. Why is this? Maybe telling her truefeelings to Willy instead of suppressing them like when he was animatedreleases her, but she keeps repeating were free. As she whispersthis she seems to be on a higher plane and connecting with Willy.This, however, is open to interpretation and all we can safely say isthat the Requiem releases the pressure that was mounting in the Lomanhousehold in possibly the only way it could with the realisation ofthe failure of the American Dream.

Death of Salesman by Arthur Miller Essay -- Death Salesman Arthur Mill

Death of Salesman by Arthur MillerThe Requiem seems to simply conclude the bump at the funeral and letus see the other characters view of events with some retrospect.However, with closer scrutiny, we see that old issues and resentmentsare still very prevalent.The Requiem can be split into both(prenominal) halves. The first half(a) sees Charley,Biff, Linda and capable over Willys grave. Each character is unique intheir perspective at this point, reflecting Willys own change ofperspective towards the end of play and reminding us of several themesin the text.Happy still clings to the memory of Willy Loman as the successfulsalesman and general good man. Indeed, he holds this view with someferocity. He tries to forego Biff cosmos negative about his father (thestage directions include almost ready to fight Biff infuriated) andhis last words are ones of defianceIm gonna taper you and everybody else that Willy Loman did not die invein this is where Im gonna win it for himThis seems r ather absurd to the reader as it is clear now that theAmerican Dream for the Loman family is just that- a dream. Thespectacular failure of his father and the collapse of the family showthat the dogmatic pursuit of success is fruitless and even dangerous.Happy is a very apt name for the discussion who tries to be happy and showa brave face even when things have collapsed around him. Otherexamples of this include Happy rallying Biff both when they talk aboutsetting up business together and when Happy tries to make Biff attractwomen at the restaurant in Scene 2. Happy also represents the side ofWilly that he was most used to (Happy, unlike Biff, lived with Willyday to day and so was more indoctrinated to the lies and... ...wife. Instead of seeing the inevitable, as Charley does, orbeing somehow released like Biff, she can only see things in terms ofmoney and time, like Willy used to obsess over- He even finished withthe dentist.The second half of the Requiem is dedicated to Linda. It is quite hardto understand. She feel outs that she cant cry but then seconds latershe is sobbing more fully. Why is this? Maybe telling her truefeelings to Willy instead of suppressing them like when he was alivereleases her, but she keeps repeating were free. As she whispersthis she seems to be on a higher plane and connecting with Willy.This, however, is open to interpretation and all we can safely say isthat the Requiem releases the pressure that was mounting in the Lomanhousehold in possibly the only way it could with the realisation ofthe failure of the American Dream.

Can We Decrease Homlessness

Hicks 1 August 16, 2012 Can we decrease homelessness? The essay A Modest Proposal by Jonathan alert is a brutal satire in which he suggests that the poor families should kill their young children and eat them in aver to eliminate the growing number of starving citizens. At this time there was extreme poverty and a wide gap between the poor and the rich, the tenements and the landlords. end-to-end the essay Swift uses satire and irony as a way to attack the indifference between classes.Swift is not seriously suggesting fecal matternibalism he is trying to fetch known the desperate state of the lower class and the need for a social and moral reform. Although this essay was written in the 1700s we still cook the same issues of homelessness and poverty in todays modern society. Anna Quindlen Pulitzer Prize award winner author of Our Tired, Our Poor, Our Kids, states Today the average homeless woman is junior than ever before, many have been in foster c be or in shelters herself an d so considers a chaotic childhood the norm (345).Quindlen talks round the cycle of homelessness and poverty three hundred years after bustlings essay. Smith goes to extreme measures to explain his new plan to raise the economic wellbeing of his country. He explains what age is too young and what age is too old, in order to eat the Hicks 2 tenants children when they argon at their prime juiciness. He also gives a list of suggestions on how to cook them. A young healthy child well nursed, is, at a year old, a most delicious alimental and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled, and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricassee, or a ragout. (350-352). Although he suggests to deal and cook the homeless babies. Swift is trying to point out the fact that reforms that would be practical and beneficial to the people are being overlooked for the doojigger of the rich. Melanie Scheller author of On The Meaning Of Plumbing And Poverty, writer for North Carol ina Independent Weekly, states My family was visibly and undeniably poor. My clothes were obviously hand-me-downs, I got issue lunches at school, I went to the health depertment for immunizations (356).Like swift Schellar emphasizes on what being in poverty and homeless is like. It is a melancholy object to those who walk through this huge town or travel in the country, when they see the streets, the roads, and cabin doors, crowded with beggars of the female sex, followed by three, four, or six children, all in rags and importuning every rider for an alms. These m otherwise(a)s, instead of being able to domesticate for their honest livelihood, are forced to employ all their time in strolling to beg sustenance for their helpless infants (349).They are trying to get people to understand that not every homeless person has a way to get out and go find work so they can go find work and provide for their families. Hicks 3 Peter Singer author of The Singer solution to world Poverty, an Australian-born philosopher and bioethicist, states poverty, hunger, illness, and lack of shelter, these are the things that plague a majority of the people of the world and yet most of us are not even aware of it (359).He believes that prosperous people should donate all of the money not needed for the basic requirements of life to organizations meant to help those less fortunate that are homeless and/or in poverty. Life swift he is trying to find a way to help those whom need it. Swift says with neither house nor clothes to cover them from the inclemencies of the weather, and the most inevitable opportunity of entailing the like or greater miseries upon their breed forever (353). Both Singer and Swift feel the need to help those less fortunate and want other people to know that they can help.The hole meaning is to try and get people to understand that not everyone is as well of as them, that not everyone can just go off and get a job so they can provide for their families and th at is why they end up in poverty and homeless. Swift says I profess in the sincerity of my heart, that I have not the least personal interest in endeavoring to promote this necessary work, having no other motive than the public good of my country, by advancing our trade, providing for infants, relieving the poor, and giving some pleasure to the rich (353).If Swift was around today I believe he would be a great president for the United States of America and that he would actually make a great difference to those in poverty and homeless. Hicks 4 Works cited Ackley, Katherine Anne. Perspectives on Contemporary issues, 4th ed. Boston Wadsworth, 2006. Print. Quindlen, Anne. Our Tired, Our Poor, Our Kids. Ackley 344-346. Scheller, Melanie. On The meaning Of Plumbing And Poverty. Ackley 354-357. Singer, Peter. The Singer Solution To World Poverty. Ackley 358-362. Swift , Jonathen. A Modest Proposal. Ackley 348-353.

Harry Harlow

Compare and contrast research by Harry Harlow and bloody shame Ainsworth on understanding attachment This sample is looking at the similarities of two researchers into attachment. The aim is to present their work so as to compare and contrast the unalike approaches and techniques used by both Harry Harlow and bloody shame Ainsworth. Even though they both had their different techniques in carrying knocked out(p) their experiments, the terminus of their findings was very similar and this essay will be exhibit these findings by contrast.Both psychologists wanted to find out the underlying mechanics of attachment of mothers and their young. Firstly an American psychologist namely Harry Harlow who well-nigh by accident started the most influential work in understanding attachment, fortunately discovered he was unable to carry out his original regard regarding intelligence in rats, so he turned to the abilities of monkeys after seeing strange behaviour portrayed by the monkeys as he cleaned their cages. Subsequently he realised the fuss was being made from the extraction of the soft sanitary towels that were used in lining their cages.With this in mind he found out to prove the affection these monkey had for the sanitary towels was in fact involvement comfort seeing as all their other needs were catered for and thither was entirely adverse behaviour on the removal of the towels. He used rhesus macaques a medium sized monkey, which shares 94% DNA with serviceman yet unmatchableness must not be very careful how one sees this genetic similarity. We share 50 per cent of our DNA with a banana(Discovering Psychology, p. 204,2010). Harlow constructed two permutation mothers for these babies to show affection or need. electrify cylinder that provided milk, also in the cage was a structure made of wood covered in foam with a layer of towelling(also known as terry cloth in America). On viewing the action of the baby monkeys Harry Harlow confirmed his theory of c ontact comfort. He witnessed the baby clinging on to the terry cloth mother for comfort and only reaching for the wire surrogate for food then returning(a) back to the terry cloth mother. In another experiment he showed that the babies treated the terry cloth mother as a safe al-Qaida (Discovering psychology, p. 07,2010) On displacement of the mothers the only distressing reaction came about on removal of the terry cloth mother with no reaction to the removal of the wire mother which produced food. Upon this mirror image Harlow hypothesised that the tactile qualities of stimuli were more important for infant monkeys bonding then the provision of food(Discovering psychology, p202,2010) So the previous assumption of the cupboard chouse theory was superseded by Harlows observation of contact comfort.However this conclusion was reach in monkeys and does not automatically prove the same in humans but does go against a basis for the t In looking at Marry Ainswoths work on attachment it is seen there is a great difference in the subject and in the condition surrounding the research. Unlike Harlow who conducted his experiments in the controlled conditions of a laboratory, Ainsworth observed young babies from Ugandan families where she moved with her husband in 1953. Through the observation of the babies over two hours every fortnight over a period of nine month(Discovering Psychology, p. 16,2010) She witnessed that upon the mothers showing comfort to their young, the affection that was shown calmed them and stopped them crying, Ainsworth arrived at the conclusion similar to Harlow that the babies needed tactile stimuli or contact comfort the findings she reached coincided with the work of Harlow. She discovered that the displays witnessed and the validation of contact comfort showed infants became more confident to explore as long as the mothers were present, acting as a safe dish in the same way the monkeys reacted to the terry cloth mother.This was shown thro ugh Harlows placing the monkey in an unfamiliar playroom, using both surrogate mothers. The positive reaction only came when the terry cloth mother was present, acting as a safe base allowing infants to go off and explore or play, but also to rush back to if they felt threatened (Discovering psychology,p. 207,2010) In comparison to Harlows work Ainsworth because of ethical motive could not separate the baby from its mother due to the damage to their emotional and psychological well being.So upon which she used the technique of observation to seemingly reach the same conduce as Harlow in that attachment is based on contact comfort. Also realising in her study the importance of a safe base to infants, as in the observation research carried out on the Uganda families if the mothers were unresponsive and emotionally detached, their infants seem to cry a lot more and often seemed clingy or risky(Discovering psychology, p. 216,2010). We see the advantages of Ainsworhs study in wanting t o find out about attachment in humans, by studying humans.As well as showing more credibility into the mechanics of human attachment it also provided Ainsworth with the opportunity to develop a highly influential routine called the strange situation because of the complexity of humans. This procedure consisted of a series of s dismantle episodes involving three participants, namely mother, baby and a stranger. Page 3 personal identifier C3257246On completion of the procedure in the highly controlled purlieu (which limited the amount of emotional upset to the child on encountering and being left alone with the stranger that was constructed in one of the episodes) Ainsworth identified four different types of attachment in the infants used in the observation. While benefiting from the conclusion reached it was only on the basis of a single observation and did not take into neb important factors such as the mood of the infants and how well they slept.The study also produced a further problem when the research was carried out in different countries divine revelation a great difference in the four types of attachment witnessed in her strange situation. This begs the question of ecological validity and how a controlled observation with a set of episodes is not the same for mothers and infants where these circumstances never arise, as in Japan the strange situation procedure never took place as it seemed to be hostile since those mothers never left their babies in a room alone with a stranger (Discovering psychology, p. 20,2010). However Harlow had his advantages too. The behaviour in non-human animals that Harlow used can be easier to interpret and to explain the results as unequivocal. Like Ainsworth Harlow carried out further experiments to strengthen the theory of a safe base now that contact comfort was established. In one of the further experiments Harlow found that when the babies were placed in a large room full of toys they would curl up in a terrified ba ll if there was no mother or just the wire surrogate present(Discovering Psychology, p. 07,2010) So even though we cannot be sure of the degree of findings on non humans and how applicable they are to humans, we see that the findings of at least contact comfort are shared with the observations of Mary Ainsworth. In contrast to the different approaches taken by both the physiologists we understand that ethics plays a major role. In the case of Mary Ainsworth we see the question of ethics need not be approached, even In her later research the strange situation. ll necessary procedures were put in place so not to cause suffering to the infants. The view on ethics taken by Harlow was quite inadequate and became cruel and inhumane which was not a surprising as Harlow did not have too much heat for animals. He once said that all he cared about was whether a monkey will turn out properly I can publish. I dont have any love for them. I never have (Discovering Psychology, p. 212, 2010)unlik e Ainsworth who morally complied and stopped her experiment immediately when the infant showed any sign of distress.Although there was not any ethical guidelines in place upon Harlow carrying out his research, the British psychological guild states that psychologists must be able to demonstrate that the benefits of a study loose the cost to the animal in terms of suffering(Discovering Psychology, p. 211,2010) So the influential work carried out by Harlow could be argued the suffering was justified because human society benefits greatly from the knowledge. (Discovering Psychology, p. 212,2010)In conclusion this essay has shown the different approaches both psychologists took, By doing so the essay showed the similarity and differences of both studies. The essay showed that the main underlying set off in the two studies was of ethics and because of this the approaches were very different. However the influential work of Harry Harlow proved that contact comfort was the mechanism for attachment by showing systematically that contact comfort was more important than food in the formation of attachment. Discovering Psychology, p. 206, 2010) This essay also found the similarity in Mary Ainsworths studies without approaching the question of ethics, and like Harlow came to a similar conclusion of contact comfort,Also appreciating the safe base theory Finally this essay appreciates the discoveries made by both Harry Harlow and Mary Ainsworth on producing relevant information through there respective studies. Word count 1518 References Brace, n. and Byford, j. (eds)Discovering Psycology(2010), Milton Keynes, The Open University. *

Personalities of The Cold War Essay

Who caused the cold war? Focus the role of each character in contributing to the cold warTime frame 1945 to 1952Cold war- period of intense tension and mistrust, leading to competition and confrontations.Stand both Stalin and Truman contributed to the cold war.The key personalities that contributed to the cold war are namely Stalin and Truman,both in office in US and USSR respectively. both were responsible as their personalities and level of arrives contributed to their policies made, which heightened tensions and thus caused the cold war.Personality traits like Stalins paranoia gave rise to his expansionist constitution, which sturdy Truman viewed as aggression and tried to counter it in the Truman Doctrine and marshall plan. Trumans low level of envision in traffic with Stalin also increased tensions and take to the cold war.Stalin was aggressive and protective of the USSR as he was a true hardline communist and believed that Russia had to stay strongly communist. However , the USSR was invaded thrice in no more than a century and also suffered civil war and intervention from anti-communist forces from 1918 to 1920, when collectivism as an ideology was at infancy.These anti-communist forces comprised of the double-ubound when they helped the Whites during the Bolshevik Revolution. From this, Stalin believed that the West wanted to destroy communism before communism became stronger. His mistrust grew as he became paranoid and thought of the West as a potential security threat this was because This prompted his embarking on salami tactics ( an expansionist policy) so that Communism would remain strong in Eastern Europe.Gradually the Russians began to systematically deputize in the countries in Eastern Europe to set up pro-communist governments, in countries like Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Albania and Romania. Stalin felt that his actions were justified for the defense of communism, and that salami tactics were absolutely necessary. He did non real ize that his actions had frightened the West. What he failed to consider was that the west was not interested in destroying communism but was looking more towards post war cooperation. Thewest showed this through the decisions made at the post-war conferences when Russia was allowed to take reparations from Germany and it was allowed to benefit from the loans from the west, known as the Lend Lease. His paranoia in embarking on the expansionist policy ( comprising Salami tactics) when juxtaposed with Trumans hardline views, only served to heighten suspicion and tensions, leading to the Cold war.Similarly, Truman became suspicious of the USSRs intent towards eastern Europe. He was a hardline president who stood firmly against Communism, and was bigoted of the needs of the USSR . Truman saw Stalins actions as a breach of the Declaration of Eastern Europe where Stalin had promised to allow countries like Poland free elections but failed to do so, rather carrying out the reverse and fo rcing communist governments in these countries through rigged electionsTruman, with his hardline view that communism was bad, viewed Stalins moves as being remarkably similar to Hitlers salami tactics, and that the USSR was embarking on aggression. In addition he felt that if he did not stop Stalin, Stalin would think that Eastern Europe was his for the taking, and capitalism would perish. This in turn led to the formation of the Truman Doctrine and Marshall plan which would serve to increase tensions (elaborated below)Secondly, the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan.The West formulated the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall plan to contain communism in Greece and Turkey. Communists were trying to overthrow the monarchy but british troops who restored the monarchy in the past were feeling the strain of supporting it against the communists. The british prime minister appealed to the regular army and Truman announced that it would support free peoples who are resisting subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressure and Greece received massive amounts of aid and the communists were defeated. The notes of the Truman doctrine were obtained through Congress where Truman portrayed the situation in Greece and Turkey as part of the global communist threat. Trumans low level of experience prevented him from realizing that Stalin would see the Truman doctrine as an attempt to subvert them. In other words, he did not deal with stalin before, and did not see that his portrayal was excessively confrontational and wouldserve to heighten Stalins paranoia and escalate his mistrust towards the West.Similarly, the Marshall plan was formulated to facilitate economic recovery in Eastern Europe. By September, 16 nations had drawn up a joint plan for using American aid and in total over 13000 million dollars of Marshall Aid was addicted to western European countries. However, the west did not consider the impact that the Marshall plan would have on how the USSR viewed t hem. Trumans low level of experience with dealing with the Stalin prevented him from seeing that the Stalin was sensitive about USSRs economic status (Stalin refused to ratify the the Bretton Woods agreement so that the West would not realize how economically gutless the USSR was in 1945. The Bretton woods agreement was a system to acquire international currency stabilization which required foreign access to sensitive economic data. Stalin viewed the policy as dollar imperialism and as a blatant American device for gaining control of western Europe, and made all Russian states reject the offer.The Truman doctrine and the Marshall plan would eventually prompt Stalin( along with his paranoia) to come up with the Cominform and the Comecon which served to unify all Eastern European satellite states. Trumans low level of experience in coming up with the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall plan, when juxtaposed with Stalins paranoia, fueled further consolidation of power by Stalin, which es calated tensions on both the ground forces and the USSR and caused the Cold war.BiblographyRichard Crockett, the fifty years war The United States and the Soviet Union in World Politics, 1945-1991Gaddis, John Lewis. We now know Rethinking Cold war History. US Oxford University Press.

Course Syllabus Essay

COURSE DESCRIPTIONAn introduction to the authorship and contents of the New campaignament books. Special economic aid entrust be given to important persons, places, events, as well as to key chapters in the New Testament revelation.RATIONALEThe aim of this course is unified to help the schoolchild interpret New Testament biblical passages in their proper context. Within the New Testament, there are insights to mankind, statements for virtuous spiritedness, truths about the Savior, and principles for living an abundant life for Christ. The student will also be challenged to evaluate traditional and critical options of interpretation.I.PREREQUISITESNoneII.REQUIRED RESOURCE PURCHASESDuvall, J. S., and J. D. Hays. Journey into Gods invent Your Guide to Understanding and Applying the Bible. Grand Rapids Zondervan, 2008. ISBN 9780310275138. Towns, Elmer L., and Ben Gutierrez. The Essence of the New Testament A Survey. Nashville B&H Publishing, 2012. ISBN 9781433677052. Disclaimer The above resources provide information reconciled with the latest research regarding the subject area. Liberty University does not necessarily endorse specific personal, religious, philosophical, or political positions found in these resources.III.ADDITIONAL MATERIALS FOR LEARNINGA.Computer with basic sound recording/video output equipmentB.Internet access (broadband recommended)C.Microsoft Word(Microsoft Office is available at a special discount to Liberty University students.)D.The Holy BibleIV.MEASURABLE LEARNING OUTCOMESUpon prospered completion of this course, the student will be able to A.Explain the role and significance of the New Testament and how it pertains to the Christian today. B.Describe the content of the New Testament including authorship, literary style, theological development, and the major themes and key verse of each book. C.Correctly list the books of the New Testament in the order found in the English Bible. D.Organize the content of the New Testament chr onologically, book by book, into the framework of the Gospels and Acts. E.Explain the historical, political, cultural, and religious background of the New Testament.V.COURSE REQUIREMENTS AND ASSIGNMENTSA.Required readings from the New Testament and course textbook B.Course Requirements ChecklistAfter reading the Syllabus and school-age child Expectations, the student will complete the related acquirelist found in Module/Week 1. C. treatment Board Forums (2)The student will complete 2 graded Discussion Board Forums. The student is required to provide a thread in response to the provided prompt for each forum. Each thread must be at least 250 words and demonstrate course-related knowledge. In addition to the thread, the student is required to reply to 2 other classmates threads. Each reply must be at least 75100 words. D.Interpretation Projects (2)The student will complete 2 Interpretation Projects. The projects are based on specified portions of the Duvall-Hays textbook. The studen t will vignette the specified New Testament text, and apply the various steps of interpretation in order to gain a better understanding of the biblical texts. E.Biblical Worldview riseThe student will describe what Romans 18 teaches regarding the natural world, human identity, human relationships, and culture. The student willalso be required to explain how this teaching affects his/her worldview. The paper must be 1,0001,200 words and formatted in a single Word document using APA, MLA, or Turabian style (whichever corresponds to your degree program).F.Reading Reports (8)The student will read through the entire New Testament over the course of the term. A New Testament Reading Guide and Checklist is provided. Each module/hebdomad, the student must complete the assigned Bible readings and submit a Reading Report stating which of the Bible readings they completed. For each specified Bible reading, the student will check either yes or no. G.Tests (4)The student is required to take 4 tests. Each test contains 50 multiple-choice and true/false questions. Each test is open-book/open-notes and must be completed in 1 hour. In each corresponding Reading & Study folder, the student will find a document of study questions which will prepare him/her for the tests.VI.COURSE GRADING AND POLICIESA.PointsCourse Requirements Checklist10Discussion Board Forums (2 at 37.5 pts ea)75Interpretation Projects (2 at 75 pts ea)150Biblical Worldview Essay75Reading Reports (8 at 25 pts ea)200Tests (4 at 125 pts ea)500Total1010B.ScaleA = 9001010 B = 800899 C = 700799 D = 600699 F = 0599 C.Late Assignment PolicyIf the student is unable to complete an assignment on time, then he or she must contact the teacher immediately by email. Assignments that are submitted after the due date without prior approval from the instructor will receive the following deductions 1.Late assignments submitted within oneweek of the due date will receive a 10% deduction. 2.Assignments submitted more than one w eek late will receive a 20% deduction. 3.Assignments submitted two weeks late or after the final date of the class will not be accepted. 4.Late Discussion Board threads or replies will not be accepted. Special circumstances (e.g. death in the family, personal health issues) will be reviewed by the instructor on a case-by-case basis.D. deterioration AssistanceStudents with a documented disability may contact LU Onlines Office of Disability Academic Support (ODAS) at LUOODASliberty.edu to make arrangements for academic accommodations. Further information can be found at www.liberty.edu/disabilitysupport.

This Way to the Gas

The holocaust, some know it to have been one if the most horrifying and bureaucratic events to be caused by cosmos or a man in history. The man responsible for this event was the great tyrant Adolf Hitler who was responsible for the death of six jillion Jews, gypsies, poles, and Jehovahs Witnesses. A polish writer and Auschwitz survivor Tadeusz Borowski buts in great detail how these people were treated in his then and now known hold this way for the gas ladies and gentlemen. Tadek a character in the story faces conflicting attitudes with other(a) in the camp with sympathy, anger, and moral outrage.Borowskis short stories show mans inhumanity towards man. There ar events from the shorty stories that make his descriptions of the horrors of Auschwitz so shocking and memorable. Memories are short stories like the beginning of This Way for The Gas, A solar day at Harmenz, The muckle Who Walked On, and Silence. In the beginning of the first story This Way for the Gas, Ladies and Gentlemen Borowski starts sour with supersizing details all of us walk around naked(29). This is all the Jews and other travelers are ticked on the train being promised to a safe place. hence unembellished away of their luggage at Canada, take your luggage with youpile your stuff near the exits(37). Then everyone is stripped of his or her clothing thousand of naked men shuffle up and down the road(29). Women would have their hair shaved off, and everyone is given stripped suits. Their nude, withered bodies stink of sweat and excrement their cheeks are hollow(31). Again very descriptive almost how the malnourished and over worked people looked. These people were as close to skeletons as you could get.On page43 a women denies her on child after she cries out Mama Mama just so she wont have to go to the gas champers. Also in this short story Tadek experiences some things that both man or women wouldnt dream of doing. I seize a dust by the hand the fingers close tightly around min e. I pull back(48). Tadek in this situation in taking all the dead bodies off the ramp and was discussed and freighted with what he saw. At one point he runs off the ramp because the sight was unbearable. The short story in the book A Day at Harmenz also gives graphic details on ow non only Tadek, but also how others tried to survive. The story begins with Tadek doing hard labor for punishment for not getting up. Mrs. Haneczka Is a women that lives in the village of Harmenz that treats him nicely and gives him food. So Tadek seems to like this women but short with others when people ask him to ask her for food. Tadeks attitude towards other victims of the camp is expressed there. When your measure comes to go to the gas, ill help you along personally, and with great pleasure(53).Tadek showing extreme and hate towards Becker because he believes he was a camp senior at a Jewish camp out side of Poznan and had his own son killed for stealing. Could you blame Tadek for being mad? When the time came for Becker to go to the cremo Tadek actually felt a little sympathy for him. Another example of brutality being shown was in on part of the story a man named Ivan had stole a goose and was furiously whipped, the whip hissed. Deep, bloody gashes stood out on Ivans face(79).Another important short story in the book was The People Who Walked On. In the story theres a shift in tone, at least in the beginning of the story. The story opens up in a peaceful setting building a soccer field. This is the total opposite then the frenzied horror of the first story. A soccer patch on the outside of the fence on a warm day and inside the fence was hard labor. There is a women in the story that on the Q.T. has a child Tadek looks at the child and whispered to the mother, what a pretty child(89). All you know is prettyIt can die at any moment(89). The mother is not so happy about the birth of her own child but worried that itll be a matter of time before it dies from the gas champe rs. After that Tadek walks away as if its not his concern. This shows not only Tadeks sudden change of feelings towards this women and her child, but shows the worry in the peoples eyes they have of thinking when the day will come for them to be sent to the gas. The story Silence was somewhat of a turning point in the book that has conflicting instincts of forgiveness vs. evenge. The Americans with the freedom are oblivious of how the prisoners felt or had to deal with in the camps. The statement Silence is about the freedom of the prisoners. In this story Borowski also suggest that human beings have a need for vengeance. With hate dragged him into a dark ally they began tearing at him with greedy hands(161). The quote shows great detail on how they take their anger and hatred on the S. S. soldiers how treated them like dogs. This even tells how the camp drove them to insanity.Not event the move speech by the American on page 163 could stop the prisoners from trampling the S. S. solider to death, showing how deep their hate went. Borowski along with other writers who have written about the holocaust serve a good purpose. That purpose is remembrance. Remembering tragic events like this is important because it helps us know and appreciate life that we have now. Its important that the past things like this should be recognized so we wont be doomed to repeat it.

How Golding Uses Symbols in Lord of the Flies Essay

William Goldings book, Lord of the travel (published in 1954) tells the story of a group of boys, who argon stranded on an unknown island, when their plane crashes. On the surface, it is an interesting story of how the civilised English boys, during their time on the island, gradu any in ally lose their veneer of respectability and decent demeanour and devolve to the basest and b best form of hu art objectity. Eventually, the boys al close entirely shake off the civilisation of the world they once knew. If we scratch beneath that surface, what we find is a much more complicated observation of society, laden with corporeal, philosophical and religious symbols. Indeed, the superb use of symbolism in the book is unmatched of the contributing factors to the discretion of the book.The symbols that stand out the most are the conch the gradual destruction of the island hoggishs spectacles give the gate, and how it is used and the beast, or the Lord of the Flies (a nonher name preco ndition to the Devil), the crucial symbol, used throughout the book. All of these leave behind be looked at into more detail, and, to a fault, whether the beast is real or a physical piece of musicifestation of the boys fears, as well as the key comment that it is the evil which resides indoors humans, will alike be discussed.First, is the conch. This is the shell, which is discovered by Ralph and Piggy, and is used to represent power, potency and rules. From the really first time it is mentioned, Golding describes it as pretty and a worthy plaything. It is, like of all timeything else on the island, a simple and innocent object and immediately subsequentlywards, it put one across ups something so precious, collectible to its apparent beauty.Also, in the stemma, it is a mere utility Piggy suggests that, when blown, it would be able to call the other boys, scattered around the area of the crash, to begin a meeting. The fact that it is used to call already highlights it s importance in the book, as it has instant results. The croak is, as rapscallion later says, like that of a trumpet, using the metaphor of summoning the boys it has an authority all on its own. By the time of the next meeting, in the afternoon of that same day, Ralph, now elected leader, decides that it will be used during meetings, where single the person with it may speak.Ill give the conch to the next person to speak. He undersurface hold it when hes speech makeAnd he wont be interrupted. Except by me.Rules have been established, and the conch is at the centre if them, so it, now, is the means of putting across ones feelings and/or ideas. Naturally, everyone agrees, including Jack. Golding puts this into the book, commenting on mans need for rules within a society, and a code of behaviour, thus demonstrating what the conch signifys. As well as these, it similarly symbolises nation and free speech in our modern society, one of the few positive statements on humanity with in the book, in the fact that all the boys are able to say something, as opposed to rule by force, or an autocracy, as demonstrated by Jacks leadership, later on in the book.By chapter Five, things have already drastically changed among the boys. The threat of the beast has been lurking among them all for some time, now, and it has been left to grow to such an extent, that more and more people are behaving differently towards the island and each other. When Ralph has to call an assembly concerning these issues, he finds it difficult to get anything across, or point to be listened to, without brandishing the conch, or repeatedly reminding them that he has it. This symbolises that the power and authority of the conch is weakening, as the boys are tiring of adhering to the rules. Ralph even comments on this during his speech, when he says things are breaking upWe began well we were happy. And then-.It also makes a sly comment on rules and authority among real human societies, saying that we are unable to keep to them because of our nature as free beings, and therefore, the very idea of a rule, something that will confine us, is only temporarily effective, because we just cannot rigidly or lastingly keep to them. Many have argued for and against this theory, and much of it has to do with where we believe our origins as humans lie. For instance, if one believes in the Christian God, they believe that we are the way we are, because of the genuine Sin if Atheist, one may believe in evolution, and that we should, possibly each of us, create our own rules and boundaries, and not let any one person or body decide for us. It is, indeed an interesting debate.The idea of power corrupting, and being corruptible in return, is also unambiguous in the way that Jack speaks out openly against Ralph, repeatedly, either with or without the conch. He even says, during the assembly scene in chapter Five, bollocks to the rules In chapter Eleven, by which time Jack has succeeded i n taking almost complete control over the island, the idea of the conch has shape a laughing stock, and it has physically become worn and faded, and less handsome. Golding shows how everyone, including Ralph and Piggy, regards the conch. Despite them knowing, and comprehend in practice, that the conch is virtually useless, Piggy still tells Ralph to call an assembly, and use it, because he is so rule-rigid and loyal to Ralph, that he refuses to de honorableize him by abandoning the rules while even Ralph only uses it, under the direction of Piggy You call an assembly, Ralph, we got to decide what to do.An assembly for only us?Its all we got rove the conch,This strict allegiance of Piggys, even now, to Ralph and the conch proves to be his fatal feature, as, when he, Ralph, Sam and Eric go up to the Castle Rock of Jacks tribe, among jeers, insults and being ignored, Piggy still says Ive got the conch This annoys Jack and Roger so much, that both he, and the conch, now having lost its glow, are destroyed by the boulder, the conch being exploded into a kelvin white fragments and ceasing to exist.Although there has been no real authority or rules for some time, by now, a segmentation from Jacks, the annul of the conch marks the real end, as even the husk, the last remaining vestige of organisation and rules, has been done outside(a) with. The fact that it is destroyed along with its one true follower, and the way that Golding writes it, links it with the idea of a murder not only of Piggy, but of the conch, itself. Golding cleverly emphasises how insignificant it has become by putting its destruction into half of a sentence, and concentrating on the main part of the event, Piggys death.The next symbol to be discussed in the book is that of the island, and its gradual and subsequent ruin. Like the conch, it is a beautiful, peaceful and untouched world, but it is forever affected by the boys actions throughout, even from before the book. From the first parag raph, the site of the crash is referred to as the scar, as if it were an injury to a living being, which, it could be argued, it is. Nevertheless, in chapter One, Golding creates a beautiful image of the island as a whole, using undimmed description to emphasise its natural beauty, and this is continued right up to the point of the breakthrough of the conch a great platform of pink granite a criss-cross pattern of trunks, very convenient to sit on bright with the efflorescence of tropical weed and red coral a golden light danced and shattered just over his face the brilliance of the lagoon. Goldings intense description of the lagoon and the peeingy areas all create the calming effect of water, due to his detailing their appealing aspects.The boys initial reactions to it are similar to what the reader should have. They find it amazing and exotic, seeing their whole accompaniment as an adventure, likening it to popular adventure stories, aimed, mainly, at boys, such as Swallows a nd Amazons, Treasure Island, and Coral Island, which they say. Their excitement overpowers their sense of reality, and the fact that they are alone, without any parents or adults, which farrowgy reminds them of.But in chapter two, only just after Jack, Ralph and Simon have surveyed the island, and told everyone else how big and beautiful it is, their enthusiasm leads them to make an irreparable mis develop. In an attempt to make some sort of signal to the outside world, they start a fire, which subsequently ends up scorching a large chunk of the islands vegetation. This clearly symbolises mans effect on the natural world, and how selfish and inconsiderate we have been, in furthering our own society. The excitement and vigour with which the boys readily execute the fire also comments on this A fire Make a fireAt once half the boys were on their feet.Just like the young and carefree boys, man has created and used industry and technology to advance his own civilization, without the sl ightest thought for anything else. Already the intrinsic beauty of the island has been permanently tarnished twice. Piggy says, sarcastically, when commenting on the fire You got your small fire all right.This theme of the gradual destruction of the island is continued throughout the rest of the book, which charts, in a way, the time and scale of mans destruction of the Earth. In chapter Six, the mother pig is brutally murdered, meaning that, now, although there will be plenty of meat, there wont be any new pigs to hunt, when they are all hunted down. And, of course, it all comes to an end, when the fire courses through the island, at the end, in chapter Twelve, finally completely obliterating anything natural, or pure, somewhat the island.Ralph heard a curious trickling soundas if someone were unwrapping great sheets of cellophaneSmoke was seeping through the branches in white and yellow wispsand then the smoke billowed around him.Concerning the island, and what it represents, Gol ding has used such vivid imagery in his description, that, when the island is being razed to the ground, the reader is left to feel slightly sorrowful nigh its end, and it encourages the reader to reflect on what has happened on it ever since the boys arrived. This ties in very well with the religious connection, the island even being described as an Eden the idea of the Original Sin being the cause of mans present physical and moral condition.At the beginning, the boys enjoy the island and are treating the whole experience as a great big adventure after time elapses, and the boys have become af burst of the beast, lurking around the island, their terror and fear causes them to fight back against the island, thus doing things which, though they are not fully cognisant of it, are ruining their environment. Towards the end, they are conducting an all-out attack on the island, with the beast on it (though, with the leadership of Jack, this is somewhat directed against Ralph).Another distinctive symbol in the book, is Piggys spectacles. Not only are these a utility, when being used as the means to start a fire, but they also symbolise more Piggys (or just, on its own) intelligence. It is the only asset that Piggy has over the others on the island, and it also ties in with him, his behaviour, and what they symbolise.Like the conch, and what it symbolises, Piggy holds dear his spectacles this can be argued as natural, for realitys sake, but he is not the only boy who has such high esteem for them. Jack seizes them from him twice, and it could be said that Jack only does it partly for their usefulness, partly for what they symbolise (intelligence and foresight), and partly because Jack just hates Piggy and will do anything to cause harm or suffering towards him. When in chapter Four, they are damaged, with one of the lenses being broken, he doesnt care, as he mimics Piggys cry of Just you wait. And, in chapter Ten, Jack behaves triumphantly, when it is revealed tha t he and a couple of members of his tribe have raided the huts, and stolen Piggys spectacles The chief led themexulting in his achievementFrom his left advance dangled Piggys broken glasses.This reaffirms how jack abuses intelligence, by stealing the spectacles, and glorifying his triumph.Another clear sign that the glasses represent intelligence is the fact that Piggy, the most acute and scientific boy there, is less confident, without them. In chapter Ten, after the damage, but before the raid, Piggy says, to Ralph I only got one eye, now. You ought to know that. Despite his reliability, even Ralph is beginning to lose hope in Piggy, his spectacles, and the meaningless conch. Golding makes the glasses now represent hope, or the lack of it. Because Piggys sight is dimmer, no one can see a way out of their predicament. This links with what Golding is saying about how man needs rules, with the conch so, man must also need hope, otherwise, listlessness and discouragement set in. on that pointfore, the link between rules and authority, hope, intelligence and foresight, and intellect is strongly emphasised. Golding is saying that we, as civilised humans need all four, which have made up our present society. Its also telling that their present society is in the middle of a nuclear war, which could be argued as whats happening on the island, anyway. This is most clearly represented by the fact that, at the end, where the island has been devastated, and the conch, Piggy and the glasses have all been done away with, there is no moral code. The island now mirrors both their and our present society.The next major symbol in the book is the fire, and it has many different uses in the story. In chapter One, the boys have the idea of making a fire, to act as a signal to any passing ships, despite their lack of concern or consideration for the rest of the island, already discussed. But, towards the end of the chapter, the fire is described as being something different da ngerous and destructive, as it burns down a part of the mountain. This is a hint of what is to come, both in terms of the plot, and Goldings way of using fire to symbolise how destructive humanity can be.All at once the lights flickering ahead of him incorporate together, the roar of the forest rose to thunder and a tall bush directly in his path burst into a great fan-shaped flamethe cacoethes beating on his left side and the fire racing forward like a tide.It is telling, also, to what Golding believes about mans effect on the earth, as the fire has made the island a hell, compared to the paradise that it was at the beginning.When, in chapter Four, the fire goes out, it symbolises the loss of hope, in Ralph, as he is losing control of Jack and his hunters, and Jack is wresting the boys to his power. This is also where Piggys spectacles are damaged, and the chain of events, here, all symbolise the despair that Ralph is beginning to have. It also ties in with chapters Eight and Ele ven, where Ralph speaks of Jack stealing the fire, or hope, that was keeping him and the boys sane, and working together. Here Golding is making another comment about our society without hope, there is nothing worth fighting for or bothering with. The boys have become savage over a period of time, during which they were almost rescued, but due to their own selfishness in wanting to enjoy themselves, they have concerned themselves with fun and pleasure, seeing as there is no hope of anything else.And this is where fire, as a symbol, takes on a darker side. In chapter Nine, during the feast, and having used it to cook the meat of the mother-pig (though the utilisation of the fire for planning the could be a positive thing), the boys dance around it, as if in some ritualistic sacrament shouting, howling and chanting Jack leapt on to the sand.Do our dance Come on DanceA circling movement developed and a chantthe littluns ran and jumpedPiggy and Ralph, under the threat of the sky, found themselves eager to take a place in this demented but partly secure societyThe movementbegan to beat like a steady pulseThere was the throb and stamp of a single organism.The way that Golding describes it, conjures up the image of the boys transforming, literally, into the very same beast that they are all afraid of. The pace and the actors line of the words give off a feeling of great tension, signified by the coming storm in the scene. Also, the boys are described as a single organism. Due to the nature the story, Golding deliberately dehumanises the boys, and turns them into a mob, to comment on humanity as it acts in a very closed society. When one looks into human history, it is evident that in any one group, as factions, we have done terrible things to each other and to our environment. Simons death, included here, is probably the most lucid example of how destructive human beings are en masse.The final, and most distinctive, symbol to be discussed is that of the beast. This is the most profound icon used by Golding to look at his overall message of the evils within man, and his pessimism towards human nature. The beast is first introduced by one of the littleuns in chapter Two, after Ralph and Jack have explained their situation to the other boys. He wants to know what youre going to do about the snake-thing.Now he says it was a beastieThe idea that the beast is a snake-thing links in with the idea of the Original Sin the Devil taking the shape of a serpent (snake) to tempt Eve, the mother of humanity, into wrongdoing.As looked at in discussion of the conch, the island, and the fire, we already know that things go wrong on the island, and that Golding attributes this to human nature. The beast, and this idea of it being inescapable represents this. For instance, the different methods by which the boys dream up its presence (from water, air, snake-like) al are natural, or scriptural references. Every idea of the form of the beast is a comprehensible, human, one. Also, during the frequent discussions among the boys meetings, as the fear of the beast increases among the boys, so, too, does Simons understanding. In chapter Five, he says Maybe there is a beastmaybe its only usThis shows his comprehension of the idea of something evil and primitive growing within the society of the boys. This is made completely evident in chapter Eight, with his conversation (in actual fact, an epileptic fit) with the beast. Simon is in his special place, originally a peaceful area of contemplation, abused by Jacks placing the head of the hunted mother pig there, as an crack to the beast.The conversation itself is very insightful towards Goldings view of humanity and towards what Simon represents, also. The beast, or Lord of the Flies, as it is called, here, mentions Ralph, Jack, and Piggy, hinting at how they each represent an important aspect of human society (leadership, dictatorship, and rationality, respectively all of the secular, or physical features of humanity). The fact that the pig/beast is named as the Lord of the Flies links in with Goldings view that it is humanitys one true fault, that we have it in ourselves to be evil. Man is the beast its simply the evil within the boys that motivates them to think of it. The Lord of the Flies says You knew, didnt you? Im part of you?Im the reason why its no go? Why things are what they are?Of course, Simon isnt really talking to the Devil the fact that its all taking place inside his own head highlights that he is merely seeing that this is the darker part of human nature.When Simon then goes up the mountain, to search for the truth about the beast which he, Ralph and Jack see, Golding is showing us that Simon is representative of Christ. He is the one who sees the problem with humanity, right from the beginning. He tries to explain this to his fellow man, and is laughed at about it, and considered to be mad or a fool he eventually reaches enlightenment, when he finds out t he truth (the figure they saw was only the suddenly body of a parachutist) and when, again, he tries to make this clear to the other boys, he is killed, tragically, during the feast-turned-ritual, while they are out of control the crowd surged after it, poured down the rock, leapt on to the beast, screamed, struck, bit, torethe tearing of teeth and claws.Here, again, the boys are described as being the beast.Though extremely graphic and violent (as the death of Jesus was), Golding writes a beautiful aftermath, when describing the body being carried out to sea, paralleling the angelic ascension to heaven of Jesus The edge of the lagoon became a streak of phosphorescence which advanced minutelyThe clear water mirrored the clear sky and the angular bright constellationsthe advancing clearness was full of strange, moonbeam-bodied creatures with fiery eyes.The way in which Golding has crafted the language to create this imagery, is conjuring up the thought of Simons spirit, as it were, drifting up. It also emphasises the idea of the calm after the storm. A storm, during which, dark and violent events have occurred amongst the boys, and on the island. Now, as an irredeemable act has been carried out, Golding helps the reader reflect on this, with the serenity and beauty of the aftermath.As we know, after Simons death, everything happens very quickly. Within two days, Jacks hunters raid Ralph, Piggy, Sam and Eric, and take Piggys glasses Piggy is consciously murdered, in an attempt to retrieve them, and the conch is destroyed with him Ralph is hunted down like a pig, and the island is destroyed completely by a raging fire, which, ironically, is the beacon that gets them rescued.The beast is Goldings main device, used to convey this overall theme of the evil within man and his society. Most of the events in the book revolve around it. Ralph, the leader, tries to reassure the boys that it doesnt exist, while being unsure of that himself Piggy, the rational scientist, completely denies its existence, and pins the boys behaviour down to things which he can be certain of Jack, the dictator, pragmatically uses the beast as fodder for the boys, denying its existence at one point, then offering it gifts at others. While Simon, the philosopher, is aware of its true form all along, but is ignored and killed for his speaking out about it.In conclusion, Goldings exceptionally mixed novel is, probably, one of the grimmest, pessimistic, cynical, and yet extremely profound literatures ever written. His view of humanity and human nature is unparalleled in the way he conveys it. Whether it is possible or not would need another essay to discuss it, but by studying all of his injected symbols, and the different purposes he creates for them, we are given a very vividly bleak image.The conch, a beautiful shell, used for a noble purpose, is abused and ridiculed, eventually unceremoniously destroyed, by which point it is dirty and uncared for. Its symbolising hope , authority, rules and freedom of speech comments on how we use these ideas today, in our society. The island, a paradise world, untouched and naturally beautiful, is ruined right from the boys very entrance, and is progressively destroyed, due to their unconcern for it.This shadows mans behaviour towards his surroundings and how he has advanced his own race without caution or care for the earth. Piggys glasses, rationality and intelligence, cherished by Ralph and Piggy, and abused by Jack, mirror how people have used science and philosophy for their own ends, so as to get away with terrible things. The fire is, at one point, a symbol of hope and rescue and at other points, it symbolises destruction, danger, and fear. And, of course, the beast Goldings main means. The evil within man, and how it is manifest.It is telling, however, that Lord of the Flies is only the first in a series of novels by Golding, used to convey his pessimistic view of humanity. As mentioned, there is so much to say about just the symbols he uses here, that makes this book one of literatures finest pieces.

Banana Heart Summer Essay

IV. Choose your favorite lines/quotations. Explain and justify.* Floating faith made us brave, made us endure consequences. I en ecstasy this line because it is true that faith made us brave. I have my own faith that truly makes me strong and draw out my life even stacks of consequences come. I know that having faith gives grace in your heart and soul that keeps you to fight.* The journey of life is not any(prenominal) easy.Yeah, so true, that life is not any easy because we do not know what will come tomorrow or later. There are lots of things that may conk. Good or pestiferous we can never say. But if we have faith, life will be at ease and enjoyable enough. Your faith will guide you and gives you inspiration to continue your life no matter what problems come.* Pride is a sin, self-regard is salvation. I am my mothers daughter. This one is kind of reflective one. It makes me to realize something. I believe that this justifiable self-respect is a sin especi everyy if you are h urting somebody in a simple or hard way. And this dignity or the honor that you keep will save you from your sin comparable pride. The last line saying, I am my mothers daughter gives me joy that Nenita shows great love because shes proud that she is a daughter of her mother no matter what people say and even if her mother expresses disappointment towards Nenita.* Im afraid I could never consider the balance between love and anger. These two strong emotions are sometimes hard to control. I like this line because I can relate my own experience. Like being in love somehow gives happiness that can drive you crazy, do everything, sacrifices and all like. While being angry which I am scared of is real uncontrollable sometimes. Its so confusing that you do not what will happen next if love and anger collides.* It was just rain, just water. Without sweets or spices or condiments, without our expert or fumbling interventions to make it taste better, without our need to disguise its natur e, notwithstanding how we reveled in each drop. It explains the significance of water in our lives. I love these lines because it expresses simplicity likewise in having simple life. Being satisfied even if you only when have enough.* Sadly love is not just water we do things to it.I laughed in this line because as to compare love in water, it is really different. Unlike in having water in your hand is so easy to possess and have it forever in just for example buying it period in love you need to give attention and effort until the end just to save and nourish it.* We understand that the devil and the angel were equal partners in the balance of the universe. I believe that there is devil and angel in this world. That is why there is good and bad, happy and sad, light and dark, love and hate. Sometimes we find our lives more meaningful if we realize that we do mistake and change it and be better next time.* First love is too confusing.As a saying, reliable love never die because this was the first time you fall in love to someone who you think is the best person ever that you want to be with forever and the last. It is true that first love is too confusing because it surely drives you crazy. Unstoppable care and worries at the same time.* They say there is love at first sight between a mother and her firstborn. A great blessing it is to have a baby. The most awaited gift from God that a couple want and need to. Yes, I believe that there is love at first sight between the mother and her first baby plainly because they are alike. Having this powerful feeling that you can only find, Love.V. Think of the most appropriate sound track for Banana Heart Summer, state reason by giving ten lines or more from the song.

Internet Marketing Saves Time and Cost

Term paper lucre tradeing saves m and damage instantly beca intent of technological changes it becomes very easy for every merchandiseer to market the product or business through and through internet. The growth of cyberspace engineering has enormous potential as it reduces the costs of product and serve up deliverance and ex consorts geographical boundaries in bringing buyers and shell outers together. The Internet provides opportunities for an organization to enhance its business in a efficient and practical manner.It became easy to do market research, strike markets serve customers better, distribute products faster, solve customer problems, and excrete to a greater extent efficiently with business partners. It saves the time and cost as tumesce that could be the cost of market research, advertising, reaching the customers etc. E-commerce besides creates value for customers in many ways. Customers argon considered as a market of one. They tail end access a great er variety of products, often at lower prices.Using the internet and related technologies to complete significant trade activities is known as e- trade or electronic marketing. The ways that some marketing activities argon performed have changed as businesses have turned to e-commerce. Customers are like lifeblood of an organization. They are also considered as a KING of the market beca mathematical function a customer decides whether he is passage to buy anything from you or anybody else that anybody could be your business rival as well. It is your duty to satisfy your customer and let him stick with you forever.And leave behind coax their family and friends too to be your customer if they are satisfied with your product and services. Mostly online customers are innovators or risk of infection takers who do not hesitate to try new and unique products and check the services of different organizations. If a business person want to sell products online it should turn its market ing efforts towards the early adopters. Internet marketing also has greater impact on marketing mix especially on promotion of the products. There is a broad range of products marketed on the Internet that range from consumable goods to durable goods.Services marketed on the Internet also range from online newspapers to business- astray consultation. In digital services business-support services are the activities that support businesses in developing and delivering digital products and services. Business-support services include web design, web site hosting. Consumer services are the activities that support consumer access to and use of internet resources and digital information. New and innovative products are now developed because of the change in technology. The demands of the customers are also increasing because of it.It became easy for marketer to set price online and earn more profit because it reduces the cost of the advertising and marketing like billboards, newspapers and TV ads etc. Businesses use a promotional mix to reach their objectives. A promotional mix includes advertising, personal selling, sales promotions, and hypermedia. Today, most e-commerce promotional campaigns require a combination of traditional methods. Each element of the promotional mix has strengths for reaching specific communication goals. Promotional transcription in a medium is known as advertising.The internet is the fastest-growing advertising Medium. Telemarketing and direct ring armour were attempts to personalize advertisement in order to make it more effective. These direct marketing approaches worked fairly well but were expensive and slow and seldom truly one-to-one interactive. The Internet introduces the concept of interactive marketing, which has enabled advertisers to interact directly with customers. Banner ads act like placement ads in print media. To catch a viewers eye, superior ads are now using animation, java programming, and multimedia.Banner ads are useful in creating awareness of products and in communication information nearly them. Distribution is an important part of any marketing transaction. Many businesses aim to boost competitive favor by using E-Systems to de-layer the distribution chain. For example, Dell supplies customers directly, rather than through distributors, wholesalers or retailers. It is low-priced but risky if u fail to deliver on time you can lose a valuable customer. It is significant for managers to understand what value is, how it is created and how it could be added.The internet provides many opportunities for companies to increase economic avail and, therefore, customer satisfaction. As time is money, through internet marketing there is no need to WAIT, for a revised version, updating is quick, automatic, and prompt as required. Adding more pages to a document online involves virtually no get down compared to the add-onal cost. One can provide more information to the customers. One can reach more customers than ever before and it does not cost a penny more. Internet marketing allows the customers to research and grease ones palms products and services at their wn leisure. Through internet marketing the marketer access to valuable information which determines which messages and offerings are more important and effective with the consumer. This method equates to faster results because online marketing intiaties usually requires the user to click on an ad, visit a website, and or perform a order action. Internet marketing is a radiate and hassle-free media of promotion, advertisement. It saves time and is cost effective than the traditional marketing style. Millions of homebuyers hit the internet for information.Internet homebuyers make better clients. References Scott F. demasculinise (2003) selling is whatever you do to promote and grow your business including market research, advertising, publicity, sales, merchandising and distribution. Internet marketing uses the sources of online business networks and interactive media to reach marketing objectivesno paper, no telephone, no call, no in person appearances. Electro versions of catalogs, brochures, white papers, data sheets etc dont have to print, store or shipped to your customer. A question arises?What about the manpower/lady power cost? You no longer require as many stack to handle mailing and distribution of your marketing collateral more savings Wrent Nest (2010) If one takes the advantage of the web for promoting and advertising purposes, businesses not just reach their target viewers but they can pass over the achievements of a campaign since the figures and success rates of the campaign is really an easy task to trace. This provides the businesses with strong statistics on whether or not their marketing strategies are profitable or if they want enhancement.Julie Rotter (www. jrotter. biz) In addition to the huge audience of an excellent prospective client, the internet offers both c onvenience and cost effectiveness than that traditional media websites are more engaging and informative than even the take up brochures. Emails make it easier and cheaper to keep in fill with existing clients. One does not need to have a four or five-figure marketing reckon to create a professional online presence. Julie Hume (2012) A website is like an expensive cut of chocolates.The outer carton may have a satin finish, the letters embossed in copper foil, the edges die-cut love hearts and the whole cover in a purple satin ribbon. Gorgeous Who cares? Let me at the chocolate say that pretty box its job and enticed the browser to buy. How happy will be the purchase if its contents are past the sell by date, the chocolates covered in mold and the sweet centre fermented and rotten. EEEW. she put hell emphasis on creating a website not only saves the time and cost but act as an influencer to make a purchase or experience itFor examples Wikipedia and Craigslist now a good visual sites but still a center an attraction for gaining the information. Website link (www. urbanroute. com) Improve your Competitive Edge Expand Customer Base and target Audience Increase referrals and word of mouth Boost sales, repeat business and customer loyalty ransom time and money by reducing marketing costs Build customer trust / encourage your customers privacy Rashad Yazdanifard1, Melissa Venpin2, Wan Fadzilah Wan Yusoff 3, Mohammad Rabiul Islam4(emailprotected om) Internet marketing (IM) is also known as digital marketing, web marketing, online marketing, or e-marketing. As the name states, it is the advertising of products or services over the Internet. However, it also implies marketing through the wireless media and through e-mail. It helps us in creating good relationships with our customers and makes our life easy. Initially internet was utilize by fresh graduates and the bigger organizations for smooth working but now it became a trend to use internet and people that do not have internet at their home or offices are considered as backward.Now being trendy means that you are using internet and noteing solutions of your problems on it alternatively of going to a consultant personally. Because Internet grew in only five years and there are no barriers for time or location, marketing online has become the new era in E-commerce with petty variable cost per customer. Now internet is considered as the easy and somehow necessary tool of marketing for that occasion website designers are hired who make the websites interesting and attractive for the customers.A well designed Web site can lead to an interesting, low cost means for sales promotion to worldwide customers. Shopping on the Internet is convenient as there is no time restriction, it is comfortable since it is in a user brotherly environment and there is also an instant satisfaction of ordering, paying and delivering. Enhancing brand image, creating awareness and providing customer service ar e more important than just selling the products or entertaining customers. David C.Gilbert, Jan Powell-Perry and Santander Widijoso (1999), Approaches by hotels to the use of the Internet as a relationship marketing tool, Journal of Marketing Practice Applied Marketing Science, Vol. 5 Internet marketing will become even more important in the future. As more companies will have access to the Internet, they will start doing business over the Internet. Chinas economy will be in another dimension with E-commerce where customer focus, responsible business practices and plan are the determinants of success and not customer relationship.With a decrease in communication prices, more customers will shift to the Internet as well. Customers will look for a business on the Web since there are unique opportunities for marketing a companys service, selling products and gathering information on the Net. The marketing mix plays an important role in IM in E-commerce deciding what type of advertisin g best suit customers through the Web. This is the new era of innovation where everyone will be interacting on the Web. ConclusionWeve reason from the articles of above mentioned authors that the Internet network is a marketing network use by advertisers, marketers, and society to find the right combination of marketing mix to best suit customers needs. It is important for a company of this era to have access to the Internet to be more successful. Internet marketing does not only target consumers, but also Internet advertisements client marketers from companies. Internet brings new issues that must be considered and may require a rethinking of the existing marketing mix. The internet allows companies to mass customize a wide range of products.Internet makes pricing and competitor information faster and more transparent, meaning that market forces also tend to act faster and perhaps more efficiently. People do not have much time now to be spent on shopping so in this era of fast tech nology internet plays vital role because now people rely mostly on online shopping than going personally to the shops. For this companies hire web designers who make the websites attractive and innovative for the customers. The most effective online shopping ingathering for consumers is not to save time but to do more or to get more through

GCSE Geography Coursework Castleton

Castleton is a small village located in the Derbyshire gush District. Castleton is famous for its beautiful scenery in which some(prenominal) an(prenominal) people come to hike, Cycle, and Climb. Castleton has a wide variety of Attractions which all the family bathroom involve including Peveril Castle Castletons some Caverns which range from Limestone gouges to Underground Rivers. Castleton also has exqui localise surroundings including the 517 foot mountain Mam Tor.We visited Castleton to prove whether three hy tinheses argon right or wrong. These Hy upsurgeheses were1. Is Castleton a Honeypot site?2. Does Castleton Suffer problems ca utilize by Tourism?3. How can the problems caused by tourists in Castleton be solved or reduced?I aim to answer these three hypotheses in this order of coursework.A national park is a reserve of land, usually decl ared and owned by a national government, protected from intimately human development and pollution. There are almost 7000 national p ut in the world. The largest being Northeast Greenland National park with an area of 375,000 square miles.A honey pot Site is a popular Visitor attraction which attracts tourists in large numbers. It is called a Honey pot site due the simile of bees buzzing round a hive, in connection to tourists being attracted to an site or attraction.. Honey pot sites include The great pyramid of Giza and the Grand Canyon in the unite States. Honey pot sites can be amazing to look at, this is why they attract so many people although there could be setbacks for the area setbacks include overcrowding, litter, a strain on facilities and public transport. also there are problems such as footpath erosion.Castleton is situated in the Heart of England, being just 18 miles from Sheffield and 25 miles from Manchester. It is easily accessible from all over the UK as it is only 40 proceeding from the M1 and M6. This leads to high levels of People visiting the area this could also be the reason that peopl e give it the championship of a honeypot Site.AttractionsPeveril CastlePeveril Castle was found soon after 1066 by William Peveril who was one of William the conquerors most trusted Knights. The Castle played an important Part in Protecting Peak Forest. The castle used to be called Peak Castle. Displays in Castleton Visitor Centre tell the story of Peveril as the focal stain of Peak Forest, which in his time was a royal hunting preserve.Speedwell CavernSet senior high school above the village of castleton, Speedwell Cavern takes you on a incredible underground journey which sometimes lasts up to an hour. The entrance is an almost Hidden cave which leads down to an underground canal which you then starting time your boat trip through the 200 year old mine. A wide selection of Gifts and mementos are available to buy to remember the amazing boat trip, including Jewellery made from the Blue John stone.Peak CavernSet in the middle of Castleton, A Unique World Which consists of Rock Fo rmations and eerie Sounds. Tours Last up to an Hour with a riverside walk, A limestone gorge, 280ft vertical cliffs and a traditional rope making demonstrations that can be enjoyed by people of all ages.

Africans Before Columbus

BLACK CIVILIZATIONS OF antiquated AMERICA (MUU-LAN), MEXICO (XI) Gigantic tilt indicate of Negritic African The so ist muckle in the the Statess were people of the Negritic African race, who entered the the Statess perhaps as archaean as 100,000 historic period ago, by look of the bering straight and virtu wholey thirty thou rachis historic period ago in a world-wide mari m undertaking that included journeys from the then wet and lake fill up Sahara towards the Indian ocean and the Pacific, and from westmost Africa crosswise the Atlantic sea towards the Americas. tally to the Gladwin thesis, this old-fashioned journey occurred, circumstancesicularly ab come in 75,000 years ago and included coloured Pygmies, sear Negritic peoples and B neglect Australoids sympathetic to the Aboriginal baleful people of Australia and move of Asia, including India. quaint African terracotta portraits universal gravitational constant B. C. to 500 B. C. Recent disc overies in the field of linguistics and new(prenominal) methods get under ones skin raisen with out a mistrust, that the quaint Olmecs of Mexico, cognize as the Xi People, came origin wholey from westward Africa and were of the Mende African ethnic stock.According to Clyde A. Winters and otherwise(a)(a) writers (see Clyde A. Winters website), the Mende rule prevail was discovered on some of the sup timennuated Olmec monuments of Mexico and were set in motion to be monovular to the precise alike book procedured by the Mende people of watt Africa. Although the carbon fourteen testing date for the nominal passport of the smuggled Olmecs or Xi People is more or less 1500 B. C. , journies to the Mexico and the gray United States whitethorn ingest come from westmost Africa oft times earlier, especially around five thousand years before Christ.That conclusion is based on the finding of an African native cotton that was discovered in North America. Its notwithstanding pos sible modal value of arriving where it was instal had to amaze been by means of with(predicate) human hands. At that period in double-u African expla demesne and tied(p)n before, refining was in full bloom in the westwardern Sahara in what is to mean solar day Mauritania. iodin of Africas earlier nicetys, the Zingh Empire, existed and whitethorn consecrate lived in what was a lake filled, wet and fertile Sahara, where ships criss-crossed from place to place.ANCIENT AFRICAN KINGDOMS PRODUCED OLMEC image CULTURES The superannuated kingdoms of air jacket Africa which occupied the Coastal forest smash from Cameroon to Guinea had trading relationships with other Africans geological dating nates to prehistoricalalal times. However, by 1500 B. C. , these antique kingdoms not field of operationsly selld a monumental the Ivory Coast, tho with the Phoenicians and other peoples. They expanded their throw to the Americas, where the evidence for an quaint African carriage is overwhelming.The kingdoms which came to be make outn by Arabs and Europeans during the shopping centre Ages were already good establish when much of westwardern Europe was salvage inhabited by Gaelic tribes. By the fifth Century B. C. , the Phoenicians were running comercial ships to several westernmost African kingdoms. During that period, squeeze had been in practice for about one thousand years and terracotta maneuver was being produced at a great(p) take aim of craftsmanship. Stone was excessively being shape with naturalistic perfection and later, tan was being utilize to deem various tools and instruments, as strong as beautifully naturalistic whole works of art.The old-fashioned atomic number 74 African boundal and upcountry fagotdoms occupied an ara that is now covered with dense vegetation plainly may make been clear about three to four thousand years ago. This includes the neck of the woodss from the glidings of watt Africa to th e atomic number 16, all the way landlocked to the Sahara. A number of large kingdoms and empires existed in that atomic number 18a. According to Blisshords Communications, one of the oldest empires and civilizions on hide existed unless north of the coastal spheres into what is today Mauritania.It was called the Zingh Empire and was highly advanced. In circumstance, they were the first to use the red, black and jet plane African give and to plant it throughout their territory all over Africa and the world. The Zingh Empire existed about cardinal thousand years ago. The only when other civilizations that may redeem been in existance at that period in muniment were the Ta-Seti civilization of what became Nubia-Kush and the mythical Atlantis civilization which may receive existed out in the Atlantic, off the coast of wolfram Africa about ten to fifteen thousand years ago.That leaves the question as to whether in that location was a relationship amidst the prehistoric Zi ngh Empire of west Africa and the civilization of Atlantis, whether the Zingh Empire was actually Atlantis, or whether Atlantis if it existed was lift off of the Zingh empire. Was Atlantis, the highly technologically sophisticated civilization an extension of shady civilization in the Meso-America and other separate of the Americas? Stone clipping of a Shaman or priest from capital of South Carolinas San Agustine CultureAn antiquated watt African Oni or King prop similar articircumstances as the San Agustine cultivation phlegmch carving of a Shaman The above antediluvian patriarch careen carvings (500 t0 1000 B. C. ) of Shamans of Priest-Kings clearly show distinct similarities in instruments held and purpose. The realistic carving of an African king or Oni and the stone carving of a shaman from Columbias San Agustin Culture indicates diffusion of African unearthly practices to the Americas. In feature, the portion of Columbia and Panama were among the first places t hat disastrouss were spotted by the first Spanish explorers to the Americas.From the archaeological evidence ga on that pointd both in western United States Africa and Meso-America, in that respect is reason to believe that the African Negritics who founded or influenced the Olmec civilization came from westside Africa. Not only do the collosol Olmec stone sends resemble filthy Africans from the Ghana scene of action, but the ancient ghostly practices of the Olmec priests was similar to that of the West Africans, which included shamanism, the study of the Venus complex which was art object of the traditions of the Olmecs as thoroughly as the Ono and Dogon People of West Africa.The row friendship is of significant importance, since it has been found out through decipherment of the Olmec script, that the ancient Olmecs spoke the Mende language and wrote in the Mend script, which is notwithstanding utilise in split of West Africa and the Sahara to this day. ANCIENT sl yness BETWEEN THE AMERICAS AND AFRICA The earliest shift and commercial activities amidst prehistoric and ancient Africa and the Americas may take a leak occurred from West Africa and may have included shipping and travel crosswise the Atlantic.The news report of West Africa has neer been properly researched. Yet, there is ample evidence to show that West Africa of 1500 B. C. was at a level of civilization approaching that of ancient Egypt and Nubia-Kush. In situation, there were similarities between the cultures of Nubia and West Africa, even to the truly similarities between the littler scaled hard brick trunk burial pyramids reinforced for West African Kings at Kukia in pre Christian Ghana and their counter move in Nubia, Egypt and Meso-America.Although West Africa is not plebeianly known for having a culture of pyramid-building, such a culture existed although pyramids were created for the burial of kings and were make of hardened brick. This style of pyramid building w as snuggled to what was built by the Olmecs in Mexico when the first Olmec pyramids were built. In fact, they were not built of stone, but of hardened clay and compact earth. Still, even though we dont see pyramids of stone rising above the ground in West Africa, similar to those of Egypt, Nubia or Mexico, or massive abilisks, collosal monuments and structures of Nubian and Khemitic or Meso-American civilization.The fact remains, they did exist in West Africa on a little scale and were transported to the Americas, where conditions such as an environment more hospitable to building and supererogatory of detriments such as malaria and the tsetse fly, make it much easier to build on a grander scale. Meso-American pyramid with stepped appearance, built about 2500 years ago Stepped Pyramid of Sakkara, Egypt, built over four thousand years ago, equality to Meso-American pyramid bombastic scale building projects such as monuent and pyramid building was most likely carried to the Ameri cas by the similar West Africans who developed the Olmec or Xi civilization in Mexico.Such activities would have occurred in finical if there was not much of a hinderance and obstacle to massive, monumental building and construction as there was in the forest and malaria zones of West Africa. Yet, when the sphere of ancient Ghana and Mauritania is closely examined, evidence of large prehistoric towns such as Kukia and others as spike as various monuments to a great civilization existed and wait to exist at a smaller level than Egypt and Nubia, but significant enough to show a draw a bead on connection with Mexicos Olmec civilization.The similarities between Olmec and West African civilization includes racial, phantasmal and pyramid bilding similarities, as head as the similarities in their alphabets and scripts as soundly as both cultures speaking the identical Mende language, which was one time wide interruption in the Sahara and was spread as far East as Dravidian Ind ia in prehistoric times as well as the South Pacific. During the early years of West African trade with the Americas, commercial seafarers make frequent voyages crossways the Atlantic.In fact, the oral history of a tradition of seafaring between the Americas and Africa is part of the history of the Washitaw People, an aboriginal Black kingdom who were the original inhabitants of the Mississippi Valley sur give area, the former Louisiana Territories and move of the Southern United States. According to their oral traditions, their ancient ships criss-crossed the Atlantic Ocean between Africa and the Americas on missions of trade and commerce.. slightly of the ships used during the ancient times, perhaps earlier than 7000 B.C. (which is the date given for hollow out paintings of the drawings and paintings of rides in the now desiccated up Sahara withdraw from) are similar to ships used in parts of Africa today. These ships were either do of papyrus or planks lashed with rope, or hollowed out tree trunks. These ancient vessels were loaded with all vitrine of trade goods and not only did they criss-cross the Atlantic but they traded out in the Pacific and settled there as well all the way to California.In fact, the tradition of Black seafarers crossing the Pacific back and forth to California is much senior(a) than the actual divulgance of that fact to the first Spanish explorers who were told by the American Indians that Black men with curly fuzz made starts from Californias shores to the Pacific on missions of trade. On the other hand, West African trade with the Americas before capital of Ohio and way back to proto historic times (30,000 B. C. to 10,000 B. C. ), is one of the most important chapters in ancient African history. Yet, this era which begun about 30,000 years ago and perhaps earlier (see the Gladwin Thesis, by C. S.Gladwin, Mc Graw hillock Books), has not been part of the History of Blacks in the Americas. Later on in history, peculiarl y during the early dye Age. However, during the latter part of the Bronze Age, particularly between 1500 B. C. to 1000 B. C. , when the Olmec civilization began to bloom and flourish, new conditions in the Mediterranean made it more difficult for West Africans to trade by sea with the region, although their land trade accross the Sahara was flourishing. By then, Greeks, Phoenicians, Assyrians, Babylonians and others were assay to gain control of the sea routes and the trading ports of the region.Conflicts in the region may have pushed the West Africans to sustain their trans-Atlantic trade with the Americas and to explore and settle there. Ancient sea-going vessel used by the Egyptians and Nubians in ancient times. West African Trade and Settlement in the Americas Increases Due to Conflicts in the Mediterranean The rash of the Olmec Civilization occurred between 1500 B. C. to 1000 B. C. , when over twenty- two collosal head words of basalt were shape representing the West Afri can Negritic racial type.This flower shroudd with the appearance of Magicians, or Shamanistic Africans who observed and charted the Venus planetary complex (see the pre-Christian era figurine of a West African Shaman in the p causticograph above) These Magicians, are said to have entered Mexico from West Africa between 800 B. C. to 600 B. C. and were speakers of the Mende language as well as writers of the Mende script or the Bambara script, both which are tranquillize used in parts of West Africa and the Sahara. These Shamans who became the priestly class at Monte Alban during the 800s to 600s B. C. ( ref.The History of the African-Olmecs and Black Civilization of the Americas From prehistoric Times to the Present Era), had to have journied across the Atlantic from West Africa, for it is only in West Africa, that the religious practices and astronomical and religious practices and complex (Venus, the Dogon Sirius observation and the Venus religion of the Afro-Olmecs, the use o f the ax in the worship of Shango among he Yoruba of West Africa and the use of the ax in Afro-Olmec worship as well as the protuberance of the thunder God later known as Tlalock among the Aztecs) are the akin as those practiced by the Afro-Olmec Shamans.According to Clyde Ahmed Winters (see Clyde A. Winters webpage on search. Thus, it has been analyzen through linguistic studies, religious similarities, racial similarities between the Afro-Olmecs and West Africans, as well as the use of the same language and writing script, that the Afro-Olmecs came from the Mende-Speaking region of West Africa, which once included the Sahara. water travel and shipbuilding in the Sahara is over twenty thousand years old. In fact, cave and wall paintings of ancient ships were displayed in National Geographic Magazine some years ago.Such ships which carried bear sheets and masts, were among the vessels that swept across the water filled Sahara in prehistoric times. It is from that ship-buildin g tradition that the Bambara used their knowledge to build Thor Hayerdhals papyrus gravy holder Ra I which made it to the West Indies from Safi in Morroco years ago. The Bambara are in addition one of the West African nationalities who had and still have a religious and astronomical complex similar to that of the ancient Olmecs, particularly in the area of star gazing.A journey across the Atlantic to the Americas on a good up-to-the-minute during clement weather would have been an easier task to West Africans of the Coastal and riverine regions than it would have been through the use of caravans criss-crossing the hot by day and extremely cold by night Sahara desert. It would have been much easier to take a well made ship, similar to the one shown above and let the currents take it to the West Indies, and may have taken as considerable as sending goods back and forth from northern and north-eastern Africa to the interior and coasts of West Africas ancient kingdoms.Add to that th e fact that crossing the Sahara would have been no easy task when obsticales such as the hot and dusty environment, the thousands of miles of dust, sand and high winds existed. The long trek through the gray regions of West Africa through vallies, mountains and pop up the many rivers to the coast using beasts of burden would have been problematic particularly since malaria mosquitoes harmful to both piece and animals would have made the use of animals to pack loads unreliable.Journeys by ship along the coast of West Africa toward the North, through the Pillars of Heracles, eastward on the Mediterran to Ports such as Byblos in Lebanon, Tyre or Sydon would have been two to three times as lengthy as taking a ship from Cape Verde, semivowel it across the Atlantic and landing in North-Eastern Brazil fifteen hundred miles away, or Meso America about 2400 miles away. The exceed in itself is not what makes the trip easy. It is the fact that currents which are similar to gigantic rive rs in the ocean, carry ships and other vessels from West Africa to the Americas with relative ease.West Africans during the period of 1500 B. C. to 600 B. C. up to 1492 A. D. may have looked to the Americas as a pedigree of trade, commerce and a place to settle and build new civlilzations. During the period of 1500 B. C. to 600 B. C. , there were many conflicts in the Mediterranean involving the Kushites, Egyptians, Assyrians, Phoenicians, sea Peoples, Persians, Jews and others. Any kingdom or nation of that era who wanted to conduct smoothe trade without complications would have essay to find alternative trading partners.In fact, that was the very reason why the Europeans decided to sail westwared in their wearch for India and mainland China in 1492 A. D. They were harrassed by the Arabs in the East and had to pay heavy taxes to pass through the region. Still, most of the Black empires and kingdoms such as Kush, Mauri, Numidia, Egypt, Ethiopia and others may have had little diff iculty conducting trade among their neighbors since they as well were among the major powers of the region who were dominant in the Mediterranean.South of this northern region to the south-west, Mauritania (the site of the prehistoric Zingh Empire) Ghana, and many of the same nationalities who ushered in the West African renaissance of the early Middle Ages were engaged in civilizations and cultures similar to those of Nubia, Egypt and the Empires of the Afro-Olmec or Xi (Shi) People. Nubian-Kushite King and Queen (circa 1000 B. C. ) It is believed that there was a Nubian presence in Mexico and that the West African civilizations were related to that of the Nubians, patronage the distance between the two centers of Black civilization in Africa. at that place is no doubt that in ancient times there were commercial ties between West Africa and Egypt. In fact, about 600 B. C. , Nikau, a Pharaoh of Egypt sent ships to get the picture Africa and later on about 450 B. C. , Phoenicians d id the same, landing in West Africa in the nation now called Cameroon. There they witnessed what may have been the celebration of a Kwanza-like harvest festival, where cymbals, horns, and other instruments as well as potful and fire from buring fields could be seen from their ships.At that period in history, the West African cultures and civilizations, which were offshoots of much earlier southern Saharan cultures, were very old compared to civilizations such as Greece or Babylon. In fact, iron was being used by the ancient West Africans as early as 2600 years B. C. and was so common that there was no bronze age in West Africa, although bronze was used for ornaments and instruments or tools. A crew of Nubians and West Africans engaged in mutual trade and commerce along the coasts of West Africa could have aforethought(ip) many trips to and from the Americas and could have conducted a crossing about 1500 B.C. and afterwards. Massive cuttings of the heads of typical Negritic Afric ans were carven in the region of South Mexico where the Olmec civilization flourished. Some of these massive heads of basalt contain the cornrow vibrissastyle common among West African Blacks, as well as the kinky coiled hair common among at least 70 percent of all Negritic people, (the other proportion being the Dravidian Black race of India and the Black Australoids of Australia and South Asia). Collossol Afro-Olmec head of basalt wearing Nubian type war helmet, circa 1100 B. C. Afro-Olmecs Came from the Mende Regions of West AfricaAlthough archeologists have used the name Olmec, to refer to the Black builders of ancient Mexicos first civilizations, recent discoveries have proven that these Afro-Olmecs were West Africans of the Mende language and cultural group. Inscriptions found on ancient monuments in parts of Mexico show that the script used by the ancient Olmecs was identical to that used by the ancient and mod Mende-speaking peoples of West Africa. Racially, the collosal stone heads are identical in features to West Africans and the language decrypt on Olmec monuments is identical to the Mende language of West Africa, (see Clyde A.Winters) on the internet. The term Olmec was first used by archeologists since the heavyweight stone heads with the features of West African Negritic people were found in a part of Mexico with an abundance of good-for-nothing trees. The Maya word for synthetic rubber was olli, and so the name Olmec, was used to label the Africoid Negritic people represented in the faces of the stone heads and found on hundreds of terracotta figurines throughout the region. Yet, due to the scientific work done by deciphers and linguists, it has been found out that the ancient Blacks of Mexico know as Olmecs, called themselves the Xi People (She People).Apart from the giant stone heads of basalt, hundreds of terracotta figurines and heads of people of Negritic African racial reatures have as well been found over the past hundred years in Mexico and other parts of Meso-America as well as the ancient Black- possess lands of the Southern U. S. (Washitaw Proper,(Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Oklahoma, Arkansas), South Americas Saint Agustin Culture in the nation of Colombia, Costa Rica, and other areas) the Louisiana Purchase, lands, the south-eastern kingdom of the Black Jamassee, and other places including Haiti, see the magazine Ancient American).Various cultural clues and traces unique to Africa as well as the existing posterity of prehistoric and ancient African migrants to the Americas bear upon to exist to this very day. The Washitaw Nation of Louisiana is one such group (see www. Hotep. org), the Garifuna or Black Caribs of the Caribbean and cardinal America is another, the descendants of the Jamasse who live in Georgia and the surrounding states is another group. There are also others such as the Black Californian of Queen Calafia fame (the Black Amazon Queen mentioned in the book Journey to Esplandian, by Ordonez de Montalvo during the mid 1500s).Cultural artefacts which connect the ancient Blacks of the Americas with Africa are many. Some of these similarities can be seen in the stone and terracotta works of the ancient Blacks of the Americas. For example, the African hairline is clearly visible in some stone and terracotta works, including the use of cornrows, afro hair style, unwavering mohawk style similar to the type used in Africa, dreadlocks, braided hair and even plain kinky hair. The African hairline is clearly visible on a fine stone head from Veracruz Mexico, carved between 600 B.C. to 400 B. C. , the Classic Period of Olmec civilization. That particular statuette is about cardinal inches tall and the distance from the head to the chin is about 17 centemeters. Another head of about 12 inches, not only posesses pitch blackness features, but the hair spirit is authentically West African and is on display at the National Museum of Mexico. This terracotta Africoid head also wears the common disk type ear plugs common in parts of Africa even today among tribes such as the Dinka and Shilluk.One of the most impressive pieces of evidence which show a direct link between the Black Olmec or Xi People of Mexico and West Africans is the presence of scarification attach on some Olmec terracotta sculpture. These scarification marks clearly indicate a West African Mandinka (Mende) presence in prehistoric and ancient Meso-America. Ritual scarification is still practiced in parts of Africa and among the Black peoples of the South Pacific, however the Olmec scarification marks are not of South Pacific or Melanesian Black origins, since the patterns used on ancient Olmec sculpture is still common in parts of Africa.This style of scarification tatooing is still used by the Nuba and other Sudanese African people. In fact, the face of a young girl with keloid scarification on here face is identical to the very same keloid tatoos on the face of an ancient Olmec te rracotta head from ancient Mexico. equivalent keloid tattoos also appear on the arms of some Sudanese and are identical to similar keloid scars on the arms of some clay figures from ancient Olmec terracotta figurines of Negroid peoples of ancient Mexico. Bronze head of an ancient king from Benin, West Africa, The tradition of fine sculpture in West Africa goes back long before 1000 B.C. Collosal head of Afro-Olmec (Xi) warrior-king, circa 1100 B. C. Descendants of Ancient Africans in Recent America In many parts of the Americas today, there are still people of African Negritic racial backgrounds who continue to exist either amalgamate into the larger African-Americas population or are parts of separate, indigenous groups living on their own lands with their own unique culture and languages. One such example is the Washitaw Nation who owned about one million square miles of the former Louisiana Territories, (see www. Hotep. org), but who now own only about 70,000 acres of all their former territory.The regaining of their lands from the U. S. was a long process which concluded partially in 1991, when they won the right to their lands in a U. S. court. The Black Californian broke up as a nation during the late 1800s after many years of war with the Spanish invaders of the South West, with Mexico and with the U. S. The blended into the Black population of California and their descendants still exist among the millions of Black Californians of today. The Black Caribs or Garifunas of the Caribbean Islands and fundamental America fought with the English and Spanish from the late fifteen hundreds up to 1797, when the British sued for peace.The Garifuna were expelled from their islands but they prospered in primordial America where hundreds of thousands live along the coasts today. The Afro-Darienite is a significant group of pre-historic, pre-columbian Blacks who existed in South America and Central America. These Blacks were the Africans that the Spanish first sa w during their exploration of the narrow strip of land between Columbia and Central America and who were described as slaves of our lord since the Spaniards and Europeans had the intention of enslaving all Blacks they found in the fresh discovered lands.The above mentioned Blacks of precolumbian origins are not Blacks wo mixed with the Mongoloid Indian population as occurred during the time of slavery. They were Blacks who were in some cases on their lands before the southward migrations of the Mongoloid Native Americans. In many cases, these Blacks had established civilizations in the Americas thousands of years ago. An early Black Californian, a member of the original Black aboriginal people of California and the South Western U. S.A member of one of the original Black nations of the Americas, the Afro-Darienite of Panama. Stone carving of Negroid person found in area close to Washitaw Territories, Southern U. S. THE USE OF ANCIENT AFRICAN SHIPS AND BOATS TO TRADE WITH THE AMERIC AS Protohistoric, prehistoric and ancient Negritic Africans were maestros of the lands as well as the oceans. They were the first shipbuilders on earth and had to have used watercraft to cross from South East Asia to Australia about 60,000 years ago and from the West Africa/Sahara inland seas region to the Americas.The fact of the northern portion of Africa now known as a vast desert wasteland being a place of large lakes, rivers and fertile regions with the most ancient of civilizations is a fact that has been verified, (see African Presence in Early America, edt. Ivan Van Sertima and Runoko Rashidi, Transaction Publishers, New Bruinswick, NJ The Principle of Polarity, by Wayne Chandler 1994. ) From that region of Africa as well as East Africa, diffusions of Blacks towards the Americas as early as 30,000 B. C. re believed to have occurred based on findings in a region from Mexico to Brazil which show that American indians in the region include Negritic types (eg. Olmecs, Afro-Dari enite, Black Californians, Chuarras, Garifunas and others). Much earlier journeys occurred by land sometime before 75,000 B. C. according to the Gladwin Thesis written by C. S. Gladwin. This migration occurred on the Pacific side of the Americas and was began by Africans with Affinities similar to the people of New Guinea, Tasmania, Solomon Islands and Australia.The earliest migrations of African Blacks through Asia then to the Americas seemed to have occurred exactly during the period that the Australian Aborigines and the proto-African ancestors of the Aborigines, Oceanic Negroids (Fijians, Solomon Islanders, Papua-New Guineans,and so on) and other Blacks spread throughout East Asia and the Pacific Islands about one hundred thousand years ago. The fact that these same Blacks are still among the worlds seafaring cultures and still regard the sea as sacred and as a place of sustinence is evidence of their ancient dependance on the sea for travel and exploration as well as for commer ce and trade.Therefore, they would have had to build sea-worthy ships and boats to take them across the vast expanses of ocean, including the Atlantic, Indian Ocean (both the Atlantic and Indian Oceans were called the Ethiopean Sea, in the Middle Ages) and the Pacific Ocean. During the historic period close to the early bronze or copper using period of world history (6000 B. C. to 4000 B. C. migrations of Africans from the Mende regions of West Africa and the Sahara across the Atlantic to the Americas may have occurred.In fact, the Mende agricultural culture was well established in West Africa and the Sahara during that period. Boats still criss-crossed the Sahara, as they had been doing for over ten thousand years previously. The ancient peoples of the Sahara, as rock paintings clearly show, were using boats and may have sailed from West Africa and the Sahara to the Americas, including the Washitaw territories of the Midwestern and Southern U. S. Moreover, it is believed by the ab original Black people of the former Washitaw Empire who still live in the Southern U. S. , that about 6000 B. C. there was a great population shift from the region of Africa and the Pacific ocean, which led to the migrations of their ancestors to the Americas to join the Blacks who had been there previously. As for the use of ships, ancient Negritic peoples and the original Negroid peoples of the earth may have began using boats very early in human history. Moreover, whatever boats were used did not have to be sophisticated or of huge size. In fact, the small, seaworthy outrigger canoe may have been spread from East Africa to the Indian Ocean and the Pacific by the earliest African migrants to Asia and the Pacific regions.Boats of papyrus, skin, stitch plank, log and hollowed logs were used by ancient Africans on their trips to various parts of the world. Gigantic stone head of Afro-Olmec (Xi People) of ancient Mexico, circa 1100 B. C. Face of Afro-Olmec child carved on the waste b elt of an Olmec ballplayer This stone belt was used by the Olmec ballplayers to catch the impact of the rubber balls in their ball games. This face is typical Negritic, including the eyeball which seem to slant, a common racial characteristic in West Africa, the Sahara and in South Africa among the Kong-San (Bushmen) and other Africans.TRADE ROUTES OF THE ANCIENT BLACKS During the years of migrations of Africans to all parts of the world, those who crossed the Atlantic, Indian Ocean and Pacific also used the seas to make trips to the northern parts of Africa. They may have avoided the northern routes across the deserts at particular times of the year and sailed northward by sailing parallel to the coastslines on their way northward or southward, just as the Phoenicians, Nubians and Egyptians had done. Boats made of skin, logs, hollowed ttee trunk, lashed canoes and skin could have been used for trading and commerce.The reed boat is a common type of watercraft used in West Africa an d other parts of the world, yet there were other boats and ships to add to those already mentioned above. Boats similar to those of Nubia and Egypt were being used in the Sahara just as long or even longer than they were being used in Egypt. In fact, civilization in the Sahara and Sudan existed before Egypt was settled by Blacks from the South and the Sahara. The vessels which crossed the Atlantic about 1500 B. C. during the early Afro-Olmec period) were most likely the same types of ships shown in the sahara cave paintings of ships dating to about 7,000 B. C. or similar ships from Nubian rock carvings of 3000 B. C.. Egyptologists such as Sir Flinders Petrie believed that the ancient African drawings of ships represent papyrus boats similar to the one built by the Bambara People for Thor Hayerdhal on the shores of Lake Chad. This boat made it to Barbadose, however they did not reinforce the hull with rope as the ancient Egyptians and Nubians did with their ancient ships.That lack of reinforcement made the Bambara ship weak, however another papyrus ship built by Ayamara Indians in Lake Titicaca, Bolivia was reinforced and it made it to the West Indies without difficulty. Naval historian Bjorn Landstrom believes that some of the curved hulls shown on rock art and pottery from the Nubian civilization (circa 3000 B. C. ) point to a basic three-plank idea. The planks would have been sewn together with rope. The larer version moldiness have had some interior framing to hold them together.The hulls of some ot these boats show the vertical extension of the prorogue and stern which may have been to keep them bouyant. These types of boats are stilll in use in one of the most unlikely places. The Djuka and Saramaka Tribes of Surinam, known also as Bush Negroes, build a style of ship and boat similar to that of the Ancient Egyptians and Nubians, with their bows and sterns curving upward and pointing vertically. This style of boat is also a common design in parts of West Africa, particularly along the Niger River where extensive river trading occurs.They are usually carved from a single tree trunk which is used as the backbone. Planks are then fitted alongside to hyperbolise them. In all cases, cabins are built on top of the interior out of woven mat or other strong fiberous material. These boats are usually six to eight feet across and about fifty dollar bill feet long. There is evidence that one African Emperor Abubakari of Mali used these almadias or longboats to make a trip to the Americas during the 1300s. (see, They Came Before Columbus, Ivan Van Sertima Random House 1975)Apart from the vessels used by the West Africans and south western Sahara Black Africans to sail across the Atlantic to the Americas, Nubians, Kushites, Egyptians and Ethiopians were known traders in the Mediterranean. The Canaanites, the Negroid inhabitants of the Levant who later became the Phoenicians also were master seafarers. This has caused some to speculate that the heads of the Afro-Olmecs represent the heads of servants of the Phoenicians, yet no dominant people would build such massive and collosol monuments to their servants and not to themselves.Check for historical references and literature ANTHROPOLOGISTS BELIEVE THERE WAS AN ANCIENT BLACK PRESENCE IN THE AMERICAS During the internationalist Congress of American Anthropologists held in Bacelona, Spain in 1964, a French anthropologist pointed out that all that was missing to prove a definite presence of Negritic Blacks in the Americas before Columbus was Negroid skeletons to add to the already found Negroid featured terracottas. Later on February of 1975 skeletons of Negroid people dating to the 1200s were found at a precolumbian grave in the Virgin Islands.Andrei Wierzinski, the Polish crainologist also concluded based on the study of skeletons found in Mexico, that a good portion of the skulls were that of Negritic Blacks, Based on the many finds for a Black African Negroid presence i n ancient Mexico, some of the most enthusiastic proponents of a pre-columbian Black African presence in Mexico are Mexican professionals. They conclude that Africans must have established early important trading centers on the coasts along Vera Cuz, from which Middle Americas first civiliztion grew. In retrospect, ancient Africans did visit the Americas from as early as about 100,000 B.C. where they stayed for tens of thousands of years. By 30,000 B. C. , to about 15,000 B. C. , a massive migration from the Sahara towards the Indian Ocean and the Pacific in the East occurred from the Sahara. Blacks also migrated Westward across the Atlantic Ocean towards the Americas during that period until the very eve of Columbus first journey to the Americas. Trade, commerce and exploration as well as the search for new lands when the Sahara began to ironic up later in history was the catalyst that drove the West Africans towards the Atlantic and into the Americas.REFERENCES Washitaw Nation (ww w. Hotep. org) Clyde A. Winters (The Nubians and the Olmecs) Blacks of India dalitstan. org Blacks of the Pacific and Melanesia www. cwo. com/lucumi/pacific. html If you ever visit the ancient Afro-Olmec monuments of Mexico, the Washitaw Nation of Louisiana, the monuments of Nubia, Egypt or West Africa you need to take great pictures www. photoalley. com Trinicenter PanTrinbago RaceandHistory HowComYouCom BLACK CIVILIZATIONS OF ANCIENT AMERICA (MUU-LAN), MEXICO (XI)Gigantic stone head of Negritic African during the Olmec (Xi) Civilization By Paul Barton The earliest people in the Americas were people of the Negritic African race, who entered the Americas perhaps as early as 100,000 years ago, by way of the bering straight and about thirty thousand years ago in a worldwide maritime undertaking that included journeys from the then wet and lake filled Sahara towards the Indian Ocean and the Pacific, and from West Africa across the Atlantic Ocean towards the Americas.According to the Gl adwin Thesis, this ancient journey occurred, particularly about 75,000 years ago and included Black Pygmies, Black Negritic peoples and Black Australoids similar to the Aboriginal Black people of Australia and parts of Asia, including India. Ancient African terracotta portraits 1000 B. C. to 500 B. C. Recent discoveries in the field of linguistics and other methods have shown without a doubt, that the ancient Olmecs of Mexico, known as the Xi People, came originally from West Africa and were of the Mende African ethnic stock.According to Clyde A. Winters and other writers (see Clyde A. Winters website), the Mende script was discovered on some of the ancient Olmec monuments of Mexico and were found to be identical to the very same script used by the Mende people of West Africa. Although the carbon fourteen testing date for the presence of the Black Olmecs or Xi People is about 1500 B. C. , journies to the Mexico and the Southern United States may have come from West Africa much earli er, particularly around five thousand years before Christ.That conclusion is based on the finding of an African native cotton that was discovered in North America. Its only possible manner of arriving where it was found had to have been through human hands. At that period in West African history and even before, civilization was in full bloom in the Western Sahara in what is today Mauritania. One of Africas earliest civilizations, the Zingh Empire, existed and may have lived in what was a lake filled, wet and fertile Sahara, where ships criss-crossed from place to place.ANCIENT AFRICAN KINGDOMS PRODUCED OLMEC TYPE CULTURES The ancient kingdoms of West Africa which occupied the Coastal forest belt from Cameroon to Guinea had trading relationships with other Africans dating back to prehistoric times. However, by 1500 B. C. , these ancient kingdoms not only traded along the Ivory Coast, but with the Phoenicians and other peoples. They expanded their trade to the Americas, where the evi dence for an ancient African presence is overwhelming.The kingdoms which came to be known by Arabs and Europeans during the Middle Ages were already well established when much of Western Europe was still inhabited by Celtic tribes. By the 5th Century B. C. , the Phoenicians were running comercial ships to several West African kingdoms. During that period, iron had been in use for about one thousand years and terracotta art was being produced at a great level of craftsmanship. Stone was also being carved with naturalistic perfection and later, bronze was being used to make various tools and instruments, as well as beautifully naturalistic works of art.The ancient West African coastal and interior Kingdoms occupied an area that is now covered with dense vegetation but may have been cleared about three to four thousand years ago. This includes the regions from the coasts of West Africa to the South, all the way inland to the Sahara. A number of large kingdoms and empires existed in tha t area. According to Blisshords Communications, one of the oldest empires and civilizions on earth existed just north of the coastal regions into what is today Mauritania.It was called the Zingh Empire and was highly advanced. In fact, they were the first to use the red, black and green African flag and to plant it throughout their territory all over Africa and the world. The Zingh Empire existed about fifteen thousand years ago. The only other civilizations that may have been in existance at that period in history were the Ta-Seti civilization of what became Nubia-Kush and the mythical Atlantis civilization which may have existed out in the Atlantic, off the coast of West Africa about ten to fifteen thousand years ago.That leaves the question as to whether there was a relationship between the prehistoric Zingh Empire of West Africa and the civilization of Atlantis, whether the Zingh Empire was actually Atlantis, or whether Atlantis if it existed was part of the Zingh empire. Was At lantis, the highly technologically sophisticated civilization an extension of Black civilization in the Meso-America and other parts of the Americas? Stone carving of a Shaman or priest from Columbias San Agustine CultureAn ancient West African Oni or King holding similar artifacts as the San Agustine culture stone carving of a Shaman The above ancient stone carvings (500 t0 1000 B. C. ) of Shamans of Priest-Kings clearly show distinct similarities in instruments held and purpose. The realistic carving of an African king or Oni and the stone carving of a shaman from Columbias San Agustin Culture indicates diffusion of African religious practices to the Americas. In fact, the region of Columbia and Panama were among the first places that Blacks were spotted by the first Spanish explorers to the Americas.From the archeological evidence equanimous both in West Africa and Meso-America, there is reason to believe that the African Negritics who founded or influenced the Olmec civilizatio n came from West Africa. Not only do the collosol Olmec stone heads resemble Black Africans from the Ghana area, but the ancient religious practices of the Olmec priests was similar to that of the West Africans, which included shamanism, the study of the Venus complex which was part of the traditions of the Olmecs as well as the Ono and Dogon People of West Africa.The language connection is of significant importance, since it has been found out through decipherment of the Olmec script, that the ancient Olmecs spoke the Mende language and wrote in the Mend script, which is still used in parts of West Africa and the Sahara to this day. ANCIENT TRADE BETWEEN THE AMERICAS AND AFRICA The earliest trade and commercial activities between prehistoric and ancient Africa and the Americas may have occurred from West Africa and may have included shipping and travel across the Atlantic. The history of West Africa has never been properly researched.Yet, there is ample evidence to show that West A frica of 1500 B. C. was at a level of civilization approaching that of ancient Egypt and Nubia-Kush. In fact, there were similarities between the cultures of Nubia and West Africa, even to the very similarities between the smaller scaled hard brick clay burial pyramids built for West African Kings at Kukia in pre Christian Ghana and their counterparts in Nubia, Egypt and Meso-America. Although West Africa is not commonly known for having a culture of pyramid-building, such a culture existed although pyramids were created for the burial of kings and were made of hardened brick.This style of pyramid building was closer to what was built by the Olmecs in Mexico when the first Olmec pyramids were built. In fact, they were not built of stone, but of hardened clay and compact earth. Still, even though we dont see pyramids of stone rising above the ground in West Africa, similar to those of Egypt, Nubia or Mexico, or massive abilisks, collosal monuments and structures of Nubian and Khemiti c or Meso-American civilization. The fact remains, they did exist in West Africa n a smaller scale and were transported to the Americas, where conditions such as an environment more hospitable to building and free of detriments such as malaria and the tsetse fly, made it much easier to build on a grander scale. Meso-American pyramid with stepped appearance, built about 2500 years ago Stepped Pyramid of Sakkara, Egypt, built over four thousand years ago, compare to Meso-American pyramid Large scale building projects such as monuent and pyramid building was most likely carried to the Americas by the same West Africans who developed the Olmec or Xi civilization in Mexico.Such activities would have occurred particularly if there was not much of a hinderance and obstacle to massive, monumental building and construction as there was in the forest and malaria zones of West Africa. Yet, when the region of ancient Ghana and Mauritania is closely examined, evidence of large prehistoric towns such as Kukia and others as well as various monuments to a great civilization existed and continue to exist at a smaller level than Egypt and Nubia, but significant enough to show a direct connection with Mexicos Olmec civilization.The similarities between Olmec and West African civilization includes racial, religious and pyramid bilding similarities, as well as the similarities in their alphabets and scripts as well as both cultures speaking the identical Mende language, which was once widespread in the Sahara and was spread as far East as Dravidian India in prehistoric times as well as the South Pacific. During the early years of West African trade with the Americas, commercial seafarers made frequent voyages across the Atlantic.In fact, the oral history of a tradition of seafaring between the Americas and Africa is part of the history of the Washitaw People, an aboriginal Black nation who were the original inhabitants of the Mississippi Valley region, the former Louisiana Territo ries and parts of the Southern United States. According to their oral traditions, their ancient ships criss-crossed the Atlantic Ocean between Africa and the Americas on missions of trade and commerce.. Some of the ships used during the ancient times, perhaps earlier than 7000 B.C. (which is the date given for cave paintings of the drawings and paintings of boats in the now dried up Sahara desert) are similar to ships used in parts of Africa today. These ships were either made of papyrus or planks lashed with rope, or hollowed out tree trunks. These ancient vessels were loaded with all type of trade goods and not only did they criss-cross the Atlantic but they traded out in the Pacific and settled there as well all the way to California.In fact, the tradition of Black seafarers crossing the Pacific back and forth to California is much older than the actual divulgance of that fact to the first Spanish explorers who were told by the American Indians that Black men with curly hair made trips from Californias shores to the Pacific on missions of trade. On the other hand, West African trade with the Americas before Columbus and way back to proto historic times (30,000 B. C. to 10,000 B. C. ), is one of the most important chapters in ancient African history. Yet, this era which begun about 30,000 years ago and perhaps earlier (see the Gladwin Thesis, by C. S.Gladwin, Mc Graw Hill Books), has not been part of the History of Blacks in the Americas. Later on in history, particularly during the early Bronze Age. However, during the latter part of the Bronze Age, particularly between 1500 B. C. to 1000 B. C. , when the Olmec civilization began to bloom and flourish, new conditions in the Mediterranean made it more difficult for West Africans to trade by sea with the region, although their land trade accross the Sahara was flourishing. By then, Greeks, Phoenicians, Assyrians, Babylonians and others were trying to gain control of the sea routes and the trading ports of the region.Conflicts in the region may have pushed the West Africans to strengthen their trans-Atlantic trade with the Americas and to explore and settle there. Ancient sea-going vessel used by the Egyptians and Nubians in ancient times. West African Trade and Settlement in the Americas Increases Due to Conflicts in the Mediterranean The flowering of the Olmec Civilization occurred between 1500 B. C. to 1000 B. C. , when over twenty-two collosal heads of basalt were carved representing the West African Negritic racial type.This flowering continued with the appearance of Magicians, or Shamanistic Africans who observed and charted the Venus planetary complex (see the pre-Christian era statuette of a West African Shaman in the photograph above) These Magicians, are said to have entered Mexico from West Africa between 800 B. C. to 600 B. C. and were speakers of the Mende language as well as writers of the Mende script or the Bambara script, both which are still used in parts of West Africa and the Sahara. These Shamans who became the priestly class at Monte Alban during the 800s to 600s B. C. ( ref.The History of the African-Olmecs and Black Civilization of the Americas From Prehistoric Times to the Present Era), had to have journied across the Atlantic from West Africa, for it is only in West Africa, that the religious practices and astronomical and religious practices and complex (Venus, the Dogon Sirius observation and the Venus worship of the Afro-Olmecs, the use of the ax in the worship of Shango among he Yoruba of West Africa and the use of the ax in Afro-Olmec worship as well as the prominence of the thunder God later known as Tlalock among the Aztecs) are the same as those practiced by the Afro-Olmec Shamans.According to Clyde Ahmed Winters (see Clyde A. Winters webpage on search. Thus, it has been proven through linguistic studies, religious similarities, racial similarities between the Afro-Olmecs and West Africans, as well as the use of the same language and writing script, that the Afro-Olmecs came from the Mende-Speaking region of West Africa, which once included the Sahara. Sailing and shipbuilding in the Sahara is over twenty thousand years old. In fact, cave and wall paintings of ancient ships were displayed in National Geographic Magazine some years ago.Such ships which carried sails and masts, were among the vessels that swept across the water filled Sahara in prehistoric times. It is from that ship-building tradition that the Bambara used their knowledge to build Thor Hayerdhals papyrus boat Ra I which made it to the West Indies from Safi in Morroco years ago. The Bambara are also one of the West African nationalities who had and still have a religious and astronomical complex similar to that of the ancient Olmecs, particularly in the area of star gazing.A journey across the Atlantic to the Americas on a good current during clement weather would have been an easier task to West Africans of the Coastal and riverine regions th an it would have been through the use of caravans criss-crossing the hot by day and extremely cold by night Sahara desert. It would have been much easier to take a well made ship, similar to the one shown above and let the currents take it to the West Indies, and may have taken as long as sending goods back and forth from northern and north-eastern Africa to the interior and coasts of West Africas ancient kingdoms.Add to that the fact that crossing the Sahara would have been no easy task when obsticales such as the hot and dusty environment, the thousands of miles of dust, sand and high winds existed. The long trek through the southern regions of West Africa through vallies, mountains and down the many rivers to the coast using beasts of burden would have been problematic particularly since malaria mosquitoes harmful to both humans and animals would have made the use of animals to carry loads unreliable.Journeys by ship along the coast of West Africa toward the North, through the Pi llars of Heracles, eastward on the Mediterran to Ports such as Byblos in Lebanon, Tyre or Sydon would have been two to three times as lengthy as taking a ship from Cape Verde, sailing it across the Atlantic and landing in North-Eastern Brazil fifteen hundred miles away, or Meso America about 2400 miles away. The distance in itself is not what makes the trip easy. It is the fact that currents which are similar to gigantic rivers in the ocean, carry ships and other vessels from West Africa to the Americas with relative ease.West Africans during the period of 1500 B. C. to 600 B. C. up to 1492 A. D. may have looked to the Americas as a source of trade, commerce and a place to settle and build new civlilzations. During the period of 1500 B. C. to 600 B. C. , there were many conflicts in the Mediterranean involving the Kushites, Egyptians, Assyrians, Phoenicians, Sea Peoples, Persians, Jews and others. Any kingdom or nation of that era who wanted to conduct smoothe trade without complica tions would have tried to find alternative trading partners.In fact, that was the very reason why the Europeans decided to sail westwared in their wearch for India and China in 1492 A. D. They were harrassed by the Arabs in the East and had to pay heavy taxes to pass through the region. Still, most of the Black empires and kingdoms such as Kush, Mauri, Numidia, Egypt, Ethiopia and others may have had little difficulty conducting trade among their neighbors since they also were among the major powers of the region who were dominant in the Mediterranean.South of this northern region to the south-west, Mauritania (the site of the prehistoric Zingh Empire) Ghana, and many of the same nationalities who ushered in the West African renaissance of the early Middle Ages were engaged in civilizations and cultures similar to those of Nubia, Egypt and the Empires of the Afro-Olmec or Xi (Shi) People. Nubian-Kushite King and Queen (circa 1000 B. C. ) It is believed that there was a Nubian presen ce in Mexico and that the West African civilizations were related to that of the Nubians, despite the distance between the two centers of Black civilization in Africa.There is no doubt that in ancient times there were commercial ties between West Africa and Egypt. In fact, about 600 B. C. , Nikau, a Pharaoh of Egypt sent ships to circumnavigate Africa and later on about 450 B. C. , Phoenicians did the same, landing in West Africa in the nation now called Cameroon. There they witnessed what may have been the celebration of a Kwanza-like harvest festival, where cymbals, horns, and other instruments as well as smoke and fire from buring fields could be seen from their ships.At that period in history, the West African cultures and civilizations, which were offshoots of much earlier southern Saharan cultures, were very old compared to civilizations such as Greece or Babylon. In fact, iron was being used by the ancient West Africans as early as 2600 years B. C. and was so common that ther e was no bronze age in West Africa, although bronze was used for ornaments and instruments or tools. A combination of Nubians and West Africans engaged in mutual trade and commerce along the coasts of West Africa could have planned many trips to and from the Americas and could have conducted a crossing about 1500 B.C. and afterwards. Massive sculptures of the heads of typical Negritic Africans were carved in the region of South Mexico where the Olmec civilization flourished. Some of these massive heads of basalt contain the cornrow hairstyle common among West African Blacks, as well as the kinky coiled hair common among at least 70 percent of all Negritic people, (the other proportion being the Dravidian Black race of India and the Black Australoids of Australia and South Asia). Collossol Afro-Olmec head of basalt wearing Nubian type war helmet, circa 1100 B. C. Afro-Olmecs Came from the Mende Regions of West AfricaAlthough archeologists have used the name Olmec, to refer to the Bla ck builders of ancient Mexicos first civilizations, recent discoveries have proven that these Afro-Olmecs were West Africans of the Mende language and cultural group. Inscriptions found on ancient monuments in parts of Mexico show that the script used by the ancient Olmecs was identical to that used by the ancient and modern Mende-speaking peoples of West Africa. Racially, the collosal stone heads are identical in features to West Africans and the language deciphered on Olmec monuments is identical to the Mende language of West Africa, (see Clyde A.Winters) on the internet. The term Olmec was first used by archeologists since the giant stone heads with the features of West African Negritic people were found in a part of Mexico with an abundance of rubber trees. The Maya word for rubber was olli, and so the name Olmec, was used to label the Africoid Negritic people represented in the faces of the stone heads and found on hundreds of terracotta figurines throughout the region. Yet, du e to the scientific work done by deciphers and linguists, it has been found out that the ancient Blacks of Mexico know as Olmecs, called themselves the Xi People (She People).Apart from the giant stone heads of basalt, hundreds of terracotta figurines and heads of people of Negritic African racial reatures have also been found over the past hundred years in Mexico and other parts of Meso-America as well as the ancient Black-owned lands of the Southern U. S. (Washitaw Proper,(Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Oklahoma, Arkansas), South Americas Saint Agustin Culture in the nation of Colombia, Costa Rica, and other areas) the Louisiana Purchase, lands, the south-eastern kingdom of the Black Jamassee, and other places including Haiti, see the magazine Ancient American).Various cultural clues and traces unique to Africa as well as the living descendants of prehistoric and ancient African migrants to the Americas continue to exist to this very day. The Washitaw Nation of Louisiana is one su ch group (see www. Hotep. org), the Garifuna or Black Caribs of the Caribbean and Central America is another, the descendants of the Jamasse who live in Georgia and the surrounding states is another group. There are also others such as the Black Californian of Queen Calafia fame (the Black Amazon Queen mentioned in the book Journey to Esplandian, by Ordonez de Montalvo during the mid 1500s).Cultural artefacts which connect the ancient Blacks of the Americas with Africa are many. Some of these similarities can be seen in the stone and terracotta works of the ancient Blacks of the Americas. For example, the African hairline is clearly visible in some stone and terracotta works, including the use of cornrows, afro hair style, flat mohawk style similar to the type used in Africa, dreadlocks, braided hair and even plain kinky hair. The African hairline is clearly visible on a fine stone head from Veracruz Mexico, carved between 600 B.C. to 400 B. C. , the Classic Period of Olmec civiliza tion. That particular statuette is about twelve inches tall and the distance from the head to the chin is about 17 centemeters. Another head of about 12 inches, not only posesses Negroid features, but the hair design is authentically West African and is on display at the National Museum of Mexico. This terracotta Africoid head also wears the common disk type ear plugs common in parts of Africa even today among tribes such as the Dinka and Shilluk.One of the most impressive pieces of evidence which show a direct link between the Black Olmec or Xi People of Mexico and West Africans is the presence of scarification marks on some Olmec terracotta sculpture. These scarification marks clearly indicate a West African Mandinka (Mende) presence in prehistoric and ancient Meso-America. Ritual scarification is still practiced in parts of Africa and among the Black peoples of the South Pacific, however the Olmec scarification marks are not of South Pacific or Melanesian Black origins, since the patterns used on ancient Olmec sculpture is still common in parts of Africa.This style of scarification tatooing is still used by the Nuba and other Sudanese African people. In fact, the face of a young girl with keloid scarification on here face is identical to the very same keloid tatoos on the face of an ancient Olmec terracotta head from ancient Mexico. Similar keloid tattoos also appear on the arms of some Sudanese and are identical to similar keloid scars on the arms of some clay figures from ancient Olmec terracotta figurines of Negroid peoples of ancient Mexico. Bronze head of an ancient king from Benin, West Africa, The tradition of fine sculpture in West Africa goes back long before 1000 B.C.